BEING_VBG DRAWN_VVN TO_II AN_AT1 IMAGE_NN1 Guy_NP1 Brett_NP1 Why_RRQ do_VD0 certain_JJ images_NN2 matter_VV0 to_II one_MC1 ,_, and_CC why_RRQ is_VBZ the_AT desire_NN1 to_TO answer_VVI this_DD1 question_NN1 as_RG involuntary_JJ as_CSA the_AT response_NN1 itself_PPX1 ?_? 
Why_RRQ does_VDZ it_PPH1 seem_VVI important_JJ that_CST the_AT answer_NN1 should_VM have_VHI some_DD '_GE objective_NN1 '_GE quality_NN1 about_II it_PPH1 ,_, an_AT1 insight_NN1 into_II history_NN1 ,_, society_NN1 ,_, knowledge_NN1 ,_, rather_CS21 than_CS22 point_VVI to_II a_AT1 merely_RR personal_JJ obsession_NN1 ?_? 
The_AT American_JJ film-maker_NN1 Maya_NP1 Deren_NP1 says_VVZ somewhere_RL that_DD1 '_VBZ response_NN1 should_VM always_RR precede_VVI analysis_NN1 '_GE ,_, a_AT1 remark_NN1 which_DDQ sounds_VVZ as_CS21 if_CS22 it_PPH1 was_VBDZ made_VVN as_II an_AT1 artist_NN1 's_GE challenge_NN1 to_II academic_JJ dryness_NN1 and_CC formalism_NN1 ._. 
But_CCB is_VBZ not_XX the_AT response_NN1 and_CC the_AT analysis_NN1 actually_RR part_NN1 of_IO the_AT same_DA phenomenon_NN1 ,_, whether_CSW it_PPH1 results_VVZ in_II an_AT1 exclamation_NN1 (_( '_" how_RGQ beautiful_JJ !_! '_GE )_) or_CC a_AT1 new_JJ '_GE reading_NN1 '_GE ?_? 
The_AT recourse_NN1 to_II books_NN2 ,_, documents_NN2 ,_, or_CC sources_NN2 ,_, underscores_VVZ a_AT1 perception_NN1 which_DDQ is_VBZ somehow_RR already_RR in_II the_AT air_NN1 ._. 
The_AT effort_NN1 to_TO recapture_VVI art_NN1 's_VBZ '_GE history_NN1 '_GE is_VBZ always_RR entangled_VVN with_IW the_AT desire_NN1 to_TO remake_VVI its_APPGE identity_NN1 and_CC meaning_VVG as_II part_NN1 of_IO contemporary_JJ struggles_NN2 ._. 
This_DD1 article_NN1 comes_VVZ out_II21 of_II22 the_AT familiar_JJ experience_NN1 of_IO being_VBG drawn_VVN to_II a_AT1 particular_JJ image_NN1 ,_, or_CC set_NN1 of_IO images_NN2 ,_, without_IW at_RR21 first_RR22 knowing_VVG why_RRQ ,_, and_CC the_AT attempt_NN1 to_TO account_VVI for_IF this_DD1 feeling_NN1 ._. 
Looking_VVG intermittently_RR at_II the_AT so-called_JJ colonial_JJ art_NN1 of_IO Latin_JJ America_NP1 in_II churches_NN2 ,_, museums_NN2 ,_, private_JJ collections_NN2 and_CC books_NN2 ,_, I_PPIS1 became_VVD magnetised_VVN by_II the_AT figures_NN2 of_IO angels_NN2 ._. 
They_PPHS2 are_VBR extraordinarily_RR resplendent_JJ ._. 
They_PPHS2 have_VH0 a_AT1 material_NN1 splendour_NN1 in_II their_APPGE dress_NN1 ._. 
The_AT spiritual_JJ (_( or_CC is_VBZ it_PPH1 the_AT psychic_JJ ?_? )_) intensity_NN1 of_IO their_APPGE presence_NN1 goes_VVZ together_RL with_IW a_AT1 marvellous_JJ air_NN1 of_IO freedom_NN1 and_CC delicacy_NN1 ._. 
They_PPHS2 have_VH0 a_AT1 tendency_NN1 to_TO expand_VVI ,_, to_TO fill_VVI the_AT picture_NN1 space_NN1 ._. 
If_CS the_AT angel_NN1 is_VBZ already_RR a_AT1 hybrid_NN1 (_( a_AT1 human_NN1 with_IW wings_NN2 )_) ,_, the_AT Latin_JJ American_JJ angels_NN2 seem_VV0 to_TO incorporate_VVI further_JJR incongruities_NN2 into_II this_DD1 composite_NN1 of_IO the_AT human_NN1 and_CC the_AT supernatural_JJ which_DDQ hints_VVZ at_II further_RRR ,_, latent_JJ meanings_NN2 ._. 
I_PPIS1 knew_VVD that_CST these_DD2 paintings_NN2 were_VBDR produced_VVN for_IF the_AT Spanish_JJ in_II the_AT decades_NNT2 after_II their_APPGE conquest_NN1 of_IO Latin_JJ America_NP1 ,_, and_CC represented_VVD the_AT christianising_NN1 of_IO the_AT old_JJ centres_NN2 of_IO Inca_JJ culture_NN1 ,_, in_II Peru_NP1 and_CC Bolivia_NP1 especially_RR ._. 
I_PPIS1 knew_VVD that_CST in_II the_AT main_JJ they_PPHS2 were_VBDR painted_VVN by_II Indian_JJ and_CC mestizo_NN1 artists_NN2 at_II the_AT command_NN1 of_IO the_AT Europeans_NN2 ._. 
It_PPH1 lodged_VVD in_II my_APPGE mind_NN1 to_TO try_VVI and_CC answer_VVI the_AT question_NN1 as_II21 to_II22 whether_CSW there_EX was_VBDZ something_PN1 special_JJ about_II the_AT depiction_NN1 of_IO angels_NN2 in_II post-conquest_JJ art_NN1 ,_, and_CC if_CS so_RR ,_, what_DDQ it_PPH1 could_VM be_VBI ._. 
I_PPIS1 did_VDD n't_XX make_VVI a_AT1 systematic_JJ study_NN1 but_CCB I_PPIS1 occasionally_RR followed_VVN up_RP clues_NN2 if_CS I_PPIS1 came_VVD across_II references_NN2 in_II books_NN2 and_CC catalogues_NN2 ._. 
I_PPIS1 soon_RR learned_VVD that_CST the_AT theme_NN1 of_IO angels_NN2 was_VBDZ one_MC1 of_IO the_AT most_RGT popular_JJ in_II the_AT paintings_NN2 produced_VVN by_II indigenous_JJ artists_NN2 for_IF the_AT complex_JJ iconographic_JJ programmes_NN2 of_IO the_AT churches_NN2 and_CC missions_NN2 established_VVN by_II the_AT Spanish_JJ after_II the_AT conquest_NN1 ._. 
This_DD1 word_NN1 '_GE popular_JJ '_GE is_VBZ of_RR21 course_RR22 problematic_JJ and_CC will_VM be_VBI returned_VVN to_II a_RR21 little_RR22 later_RRR ._. 
All_DB colonial_JJ painting_NN1 began_VVD in_II a_AT1 process_NN1 of_IO copying_VVG ._. 
Indian_JJ artists_NN2 were_VBDR obliged_VVN ,_, or_CC forced_VVD ,_, to_TO abandon_VVI their_APPGE own_DA forms_NN2 of_IO representation_NN1 and_CC learn_VV0 the_AT European_JJ way_NN1 ._. 
But_CCB after_CS a_AT1 period_NN1 of_IO sheer_JJ copying_NN1 ,_, some_DD themes_NN2 took_VVD off_RP ._. 
Some_DD developed_VVD differently_RR in_II the_AT American_JJ context_NN1 ._. 
Why_RRQ did_VDD angels_NN2 especially_RR flourish_VVI ?_? 
As_CSA I_PPIS1 investigated_VVD further_RRR ,_, it_PPH1 seemed_VVD to_TO become_VVI clear_JJ that_CST if_CS this_DD1 question_NN1 could_VM be_VBI answered_VVN it_PPH1 could_VM only_RR be_VBI in_II a_AT1 complex_JJ way_NN1 ._. 
These_DD2 paintings_NN2 ,_, in_II other_JJ words_NN2 ,_, could_VM only_RR be_VBI read_VVN as_II the_AT site_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 complex_JJ play_NN1 of_IO forces_NN2 ._. 
They_PPHS2 were_VBDR not_XX simply_RR transcriptions_NN2 of_IO the_AT power_NN1 of_IO the_AT conquerors_NN2 and_CC the_AT coercive_JJ force_NN1 with_IW which_DDQ they_PPHS2 attempted_VVD to_TO annihilate_VVI the_AT existing_JJ culture_NN1 and_CC beliefs_NN2 of_IO the_AT Indians_NN2 and_CC impose_VV0 Christianity_NN1 ._. 
Nor_CC ,_, obviously_RR ,_, were_VBDR they_PPHS2 a_AT1 simple_JJ expression_NN1 of_IO Indian_JJ resistance_NN1 to_II this_DD1 assault_NN1 ._. 
In_II some_DD way_NN1 they_PPHS2 were_VBDR both_DB2 these_DD2 things_NN2 at_RR21 once_RR22 ._. 
The_AT more_RRR I_PPIS1 looked_VVD into_II it_PPH1 the_AT more_RRR the_AT paintings_NN2 seemed_VVD to_TO go_VVI beyond_II simple_JJ unitary_JJ ideas_NN2 of_IO authorship_NN1 and_CC meaning_NN1 ._. 
The_AT Peruvian_JJ art_NN1 historian_NN1 Luis_NP1 Enrique_NP1 Tord_NP1 has_VHZ written_VVN :_: The_AT Spanish_JJ conquest_NN1 of_IO the_AT Inca_JJ empire_NN1 had_VHD a_AT1 profound_JJ impact_NN1 on_II many_DA2 aspects_NN2 of_IO Indian_JJ society_NN1 ,_, but_CCB by_RR21 far_RR22 the_AT most_RGT serious_JJ blows_NN2 suffered_VVN by_II the_AT Andean_JJ peoples_NN2 were_VBDR administered_VVN by_II the_AT Church_NN1 ._. 
The_AT efforts_NN2 of_IO priests_NN2 and_CC missionaries_NN2 to_TO eradicate_VVI the_AT Indians_NN2 '_GE ancestral_JJ beliefs_NN2 produced_VVD profound_JJ emotional_JJ disturbances_NN2 as_II31 well_II32 as_II33 great_JJ changes_NN2 in_II their_APPGE conception_NN1 of_IO the_AT world_NN1 ._. 
To_TO enforce_VVI conformity_NN1 to_II the_AT new_JJ orthodoxy_NN1 ,_, the_AT Spaniards_NN2 instituted_VVD ecclesiastical_JJ visitas_NN2 ,_, or_CC inspections_NN2 intended_VVD to_TO extirpate_VVI the_AT idolatory_JJ that_CST persisted_VVD long_RR after_II the_AT conquest_NN1 ._. 
In_II the_AT sphere_NN1 of_IO art_NN1 the_AT range_NN1 of_IO subjects_NN2 and_CC genres_NN2 permitted_VVN by_II the_AT church_NN1 was_VBDZ extremely_RR narrow_JJ ,_, only_RR in_II fact_NN1 religious_JJ paintings_NN2 and_CC portraits_NN2 ._. 
At_II that_DD1 time_NNT1 after_II the_AT conquest_NN1 there_EX was_VBDZ effectively_RR no_NN1 '_GE thought_NN1 '_GE (_( recorded_JJ discourse_NN1 )_) outside_II the_AT religious_JJ framework_NN1 and_CC institutions_NN2 ._. 
The_AT first_MD university_NN1 in_II Peru_NP1 ,_, for_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, was_VBDZ founded_VVN by_II the_AT Dominicans_NN2 ._. 
Painting_NN1 was_VBDZ from_II the_AT beginning_NN1 one_MC1 of_IO the_AT most_RGT important_JJ instruments_NN2 of_IO conquest_NN1 in_II the_AT sphere_NN1 of_IO thinking_NN1 ,_, the_AT mind_NN1 ._. 
In_II the_AT earliest_JJT years_NNT2 of_IO their_APPGE missionary_NN1 efforts_NN2 Dr_NNB Tord_NP1 writes_VVZ :_: the_AT friars_NN2 discovered_VVD that_CST the_AT Indians_NN2 were_VBDR deeply_RR impressed_VVN by_II sacred_JJ images_NN2 created_VVN with_IW the_AT newest_JJT artistic_JJ techniques_NN2 brought_VVN from_II the_AT Old_JJ World_NN1 ..._... 
Those_DD2 images_NN2 were_VBDR first_MD seen_VVN in_II the_AT catechisms_NN2 ,_, Bibles_NN2 ,_, books_NN2 of_IO hours_NNT2 ,_, and_CC hymnals_NN2 used_VMK to_TO convert_VVI the_AT Indians_NN2 and_CC direct_VVI their_APPGE worship_NN1 ._. 
'_GE The_AT Archangel_NP1 Raphael_NP1 '_GE ,_, by_II a_AT1 follower_NN1 of_IO Luis_NP1 de_NP1 Riano_NP1 ,_, Cuzco_NP1 School_NN1 c._RG 1640_MC ._. 
Oil_NN1 on_II canvas_NN1 ,_, 65_MC &quot;_03 x_ZZ1 42_MC &quot;_03 ._. 
Convento_NP1 de_NP1 San_NP1 Francisco_NP1 ,_, La_NP1 Paz_NP1 ._. 
The_AT Jesuits_NN2 brought_VVN over_II their_APPGE leading_JJ painter_NN1 in_II Europe_NP1 in_II the_AT late_JJ sixteenth_MD century_NNT1 ,_, the_AT Italian_JJ Bernardo_NN1 Bitti_NN1 ,_, to_TO live_VVI and_CC work_VVI in_II Cuzco_NP1 ._. 
A_AT1 school_NN1 of_IO painting_NN1 grew_VVD up_RP in_II Cuzco_NP1 which_DDQ became_VVD the_AT leading_JJ centre_NN1 of_IO the_AT production_NN1 of_IO paintings_NN2 south_ND1 of_IO Mexico_NP1 and_CC exported_JJ paintings_NN2 and_CC painters_NN2 to_II many_DA2 other_JJ parts_NN2 of_IO the_AT continent_NN1 including_II remote_JJ areas_NN2 ._. 
Leopoldo_NP1 Castedo_NP1 ,_, the_AT Spanish-Chilean_JJ art_NN1 historian_NN1 writes_VVZ :_: Of_IO forty-seven_MC painters_NN2 documented_VVN in_II Cuzco_NP1 during_II the_AT period_NN1 ,_, thirty-five_MC were_VBDR Indians_NN2 ,_, seven_MC criollos_NN2 or_CC mestizos_NN2 ,_, four_MC Spaniards_NN2 ,_, and_CC one_MC1 Italian_NN1 ._. 
This_DD1 list_NN1 does_VDZ not_XX include_VVI the_AT great_JJ number_NN1 of_IO Indians_NN2 who_PNQS remained_VVD anonymous_JJ ...._... 
The_AT similes_NN2 usually_RR used_VMK to_TO describe_VVI the_AT stylistic_JJ hybrid_NN1 produced_VVN over_II the_AT years_NNT2 by_II the_AT Cuzco_NP1 painters_NN2 the_AT '_GE melding_NN1 '_GE ,_, or_CC '_GE blending_NN1 '_GE ,_, or_CC the_AT '_GE intricate_JJ amalgamation_NN1 '_GE of_IO European_NN1 and_CC indigenous_JJ traditions_NN2 to_TO produce_VVI an_AT1 art_NN1 of_IO '_GE Byzantine_JJ richness_NN1 and_CC splendour_NN1 '_GE obviously_RR belies_VVZ the_AT violence_NN1 of_IO events_NN2 ._. 
These_DD2 phrases_NN2 do_VD0 ,_, however_RR ,_, have_VH0 the_AT ring_NN1 of_IO truth_NN1 in_II an_AT1 aesthetic_JJ sense_NN1 or_CC rather_RR there_EX was_VBDZ an_AT1 aesthetic_JJ process_NN1 involved_VVD which_DDQ had_VHD to_II some_DD extent_NN1 its_APPGE own_DA story_NN1 ._. 
This_DD1 was_VBDZ manifested_VVN not_XX only_RR in_II the_AT precise_JJ ,_, artistic_JJ and_CC critical_JJ response_NN1 by_II Indian_JJ peoples_NN2 to_II European_JJ paintings_NN2 ,_, but_CCB also_RR in_II connoisseurship_NN1 within_II the_AT colonising_JJ ranks_NN2 ._. 
A_AT1 blossoming_NN1 of_IO the_AT arts_NN2 followed_VVD the_AT rebuilding_NN1 of_IO Cuzco_NP1 after_II the_AT catastrophic_JJ earthquake_NN1 of_IO 1650_MC ,_, partly_RR due_II21 to_II22 the_AT arrival_NN1 of_IO Bishop_NP1 Manuel_NP1 de_NP1 Mollinedo_NP1 y_ZZ1 Angulo_NP1 ._. 
His_APPGE collection_NN1 included_VVD two_MC El_NP1 Grecos_NP1 ,_, and_CC other_JJ outstanding_JJ Spanish_JJ pictures_NN2 ,_, and_CC he_PPHS1 sponsored_VVD Indian_JJ painters_NN2 like_II Diego_NP1 Quispe_NP1 Tito_NP1 ,_, as_II31 well_II32 as_II33 sculptors_NN2 ,_, architects_NN2 and_CC jewellers_NN2 ._. 
Sometimes_RT the_AT coercion_NN1 and_CC oppression_NN1 is_VBZ felt_VVN directly_RR in_II the_AT paintings_NN2 :_: for_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, in_II images_NN2 of_IO Saint_NP1 Isidore_NP1 ,_, a_AT1 rather_RG obscure_JJ Spanish_JJ saint_NN1 vastly_RR amplified_VVN in_II the_AT New_JJ World_NN1 as_II the_AT patron_NN1 of_IO labourers_NN2 ,_, who_PNQS is_VBZ shown_VVN to_TO carry_VVI a_AT1 small_JJ bag_NN1 of_IO coca_NN1 leaves_VVZ as_II the_AT Indian_JJ peasants_NN2 and_CC miners_NN2 did_VDD ,_, and_CC do_VD0 ,_, to_TO chew_VVI to_TO combat_VVI hunger_NN1 and_CC fatigue_NN1 ._. 
Castedo_NN1 points_VVZ this_DD1 out_RP ._. 
He_PPHS1 also_RR shows_VVZ that_CST images_NN2 of_IO Santiago_NP1 (_( St_NP1 James_NP1 )_) staying_VVG the_AT moors_NN2 were_VBDR often_RR changed_VVN to_II Santiago_NP1 slaying_VVG the_AT Indians_NN2 ._. 
Indian_JJ painters_NN2 would_VM in_II this_DD1 case_NN1 be_VBI painting_VVG an_AT1 image_NN1 showing_VVG the_AT Church_NN1 's_GE and_CC the_AT State_NN1 's_GE warning_NN1 to_II Indians_NN2 who_PNQS contemplated_VVD rebellion_NN1 ,_, as_CSA many_DA2 did_VDD ._. 
And_CC occasionally_RR ,_, as_CSA ,_, for_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, during_II or_CC around_II the_AT time_NNT1 of_IO the_AT rebellion_NN1 led_VVN by_II Tupac_FW Amaru_FW II_MC in_II 1780_MC ,_, an_AT1 image_NN1 would_VM appear_VVI of_IO explicit_JJ resistance_NN1 to_II colonialism_NN1 ._. 
In_II the_AT somewhat_RR unlikely_JJ context_NN1 of_IO the_AT Pelican_NN1 History_NN1 of_IO Art_NN1 (_( the_AT relevant_JJ volume_NN1 is_VBZ Art_NN1 and_CC Architecture_NN1 in_II Spain_NP1 and_CC Portugal_NP1 and_CC their_APPGE American_JJ Dominions_NN2 15001800_MC )_) ,_, an_AT1 anonymous_JJ painting_NN1 is_VBZ described_VVN which_DDQ shows_VVZ America_NP1 :_: nursing_JJ Spanish_JJ noble_JJ boys_NN2 ._. 
Negroes_NN2 and_CC mestizos_NN2 are_VBR pressing_VVG around_RP her_APPGE throne_NN1 ,_, while_CS nude_JJ Indian_JJ children_NN2 weep_VV0 abandoned_VVN ._. 
Two_MC richly_RR dressed_VVN Indian_JJ couples_NN2 present_VV0 their_APPGE gifts_NN2 in_II a_AT1 beautiful_JJ park_NN1 crowded_VVD with_IW different_JJ animals_NN2 ._. 
The_AT legend_NN1 says_VVZ :_: Where_RRQ in_II the_AT world_NN1 has_VHZ one_PN1 seen_VVN what_DDQ one_PN1 sees_VVZ here_RL ..._... 
Her_APPGE own_DA sons_NN2 lie_VV0 groaning_VVG and_CC she_PPHS1 suckles_VVZ strangers_NN2 ._. 
The_AT images_NN2 of_IO angels_NN2 are_VBR much_RR more_RGR ambiguous_JJ and_CC capable_JJ of_IO different_JJ interpretations_NN2 (_( this_DD1 could_VM ,_, of_RR21 course_RR22 ,_, be_VBI said_VVN of_IO the_AT angel_NN1 theme_NN1 generally_RR as_CSA it_PPH1 recurs_VVZ in_II the_AT history_NN1 of_IO art_NN1 ,_, and_CC in_II various_JJ guises_NN2 across_II different_JJ cultures_NN2 )_) ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ not_XX hard_JJ to_TO find_VVI documentary_NN1 evidence_NN1 for_IF the_AT Church_NN1 's_GE deliberate_JJ use_NN1 of_IO the_AT angel_NN1 theme_NN1 as_II an_AT1 instrument_NN1 of_IO conversion_NN1 ._. 
The_AT Bolivian_JJ art_NN1 historian_NN1 Teresa_NP1 Gisbert_NP1 writes_VVZ that_CST the_AT Councils_NN2 of_IO Lima_NP1 ,_, which_DDQ were_VBDR responsible_JJ for_IF questions_NN2 of_IO orthodoxy_NN1 in_II the_AT Viceroyalty_NP1 :_: '_GE sought_JJ to_TO attract_VVI Indians_NN2 to_II the_AT new_JJ faith_NN1 by_II the_AT use_NN1 of_IO images_NN2 which_DDQ would_VM be_VBI especially_RR appealing_VVG to_II them_PPHO2 ._. 
'_" Why_RRQ were_VBDR angels_NN2 appealing_VVG to_II them_PPHO2 ?_? 
In_II the_AT Pelican_NN1 History_NN1 ,_, Martin_NP1 Soria_NP1 tentatively_RR puts_VVZ forward_RL the_AT theory_NN1 that_CST angels_NN2 were_VBDR popular_JJ because_CS '_" they_PPHS2 replaced_VVD similar_JJ messengers_NN2 in_II pre-conquest_JJ beliefs_NN2 '_GE ._. 
Teresa_NP1 Gisbert_NP1 produces_VVZ evidence_NN1 to_TO show_VVI that_CST Diego_NP1 Quispe_NP1 Tito_NP1 's_GE series_NN of_IO paintings_NN2 of_IO the_AT zodiac_NN1 for_IF the_AT Cathedral_NN1 of_IO Cuzco_NP1 was_VBDZ commissioned_VVN in_BCL21 order_BCL22 to_TO counteract_VVI the_AT traditional_JJ indigenous_JJ worship_NN1 of_IO the_AT stars_NN2 and_CC were_VBDR intended_VVN to_TO aid_VVI in_II Christianising_VVG the_AT Indians_NN2 of_IO the_AT Andes_NP2 ._. 
And_CC she_PPHS1 suggests_VVZ that_CST the_AT angels_NN2 ,_, especially_RR the_AT series_NN of_IO angels_NN2 ,_, could_VM have_VHI a_AT1 similar_JJ purpose_NN1 ,_, to_TO '_" replace_VVI worship_NN1 of_IO celestial_JJ phenomena_NN2 with_IW the_AT theologically_RR acceptable_JJ cult_NN1 of_IO the_AT angels_NN2 '_GE ._. 
So_RR apparently_RR they_PPHS2 were_VBDR '_GE popular_JJ '_GE ,_, for_IF different_JJ reasons_NN2 ,_, with_IW both_RR Christian_JJ and_CC native_JJ American_JJ ,_, with_IW oppressor_NN1 and_CC oppressed_JJ ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ as_CS21 if_CS22 you_PPY could_VM read_VVI in_II them_PPHO2 simultaneously_RR transcriptions_NN2 of_IO inducement_NN1 ,_, threat_NN1 ,_, coercion_NN1 ,_, protection_NN1 ,_, solace_VV0 ,_, yearning_VVG and_CC resistance_NN1 ._. 
Does_VDZ this_DD1 explain_VVI their_APPGE complex_JJ expressivity_NN1 ?_? 
For_IF the_AT same_DA quality_NN1 can_VM be_VBI interpreted_VVN differently_RR according_II21 to_II22 one_PN1 's_GE point_NN1 of_IO view_NN1 ,_, one_PN1 's_GE experience_NN1 ,_, and_CC one_PN1 's_GE feelings_NN2 ._. 
Protection_NN1 can_VM mean_VVI Defence_NN1 of_IO the_AT Faith_NN1 ,_, i.e._REX of_IO Christianity_NN1 ,_, or_CC it_PPH1 can_VM mean_VVI the_AT adoption_NN1 and_CC identification_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 '_GE guardian_NN1 spirit_NN1 '_GE ,_, who_PNQS will_VM watch_VVI over_RP your_APPGE life-journey_NN1 ,_, a_AT1 universal_JJ ,_, but_CCB at_II the_AT same_DA time_NNT1 very_RG individual_JJ and_CC personal_JJ desire_NN1 ,_, expressed_VVN in_II most_DAT religions_NN2 and_CC cultures_NN2 ._. 
Looking_VVG at_II the_AT angel_NN1 's_GE image_NN1 you_PPY can_VM dream_VVI ,_, ask_VV0 for_IF what_DDQ you_PPY want_VV0 ._. 
The_AT angel_NN1 ,_, with_IW its_APPGE brilliantly_RR opulent_JJ but_CCB light_JJ clothing_NN1 ,_, its_APPGE mobility_NN1 ,_, its_APPGE freedom_NN1 from_II hierarchical_JJ placing_NN1 in_II the_AT pictorial_JJ composition_NN1 ,_, and_CC its_APPGE bisexuality_NN1 ,_, is_VBZ an_AT1 intimate_JJ image_NN1 of_IO enablement_NN1 ._. 
Among_II the_AT images_NN2 of_IO angels_NN2 is_VBZ a_AT1 genre_NN1 apparently_RR unique_JJ to_II South_ND1 America_NP1 ,_, even_RR to_II the_AT Andes_NP2 ,_, the_AT Angels_NN2 with_IW Guns_NN2 ._. 
This_DD1 was_VBDZ also_RR a_AT1 very_RG popular_JJ subject_NN1 (_( one_MC1 church_NN1 inventory_NN1 for_IF 1748_MC ,_, for_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, lists_VVZ 36_MC pictures_NN2 of_IO armed_JJ angels_NN2 )_) ._. 
Julia_NP1 P._NP1 Herzberg_NP1 ,_, who_PNQS calls_VVZ these_DD2 pictures_NN2 '_GE representations_NN2 of_IO winged_JJ beings_NN2 at_RR21 once_RR22 military_JJ ,_, aristocratic_JJ and_CC religious_JJ ,_, gives_VVZ this_DD1 explanation_NN1 of_IO their_APPGE raison_NN1 d'tre_NN1 :_: Paintings_NN2 of_IO angels_NN2 with_IW guns_NN2 appeared_VVD at_II a_AT1 time_NNT1 when_RRQ the_AT religious_JJ orders_NN2 were_VBDR confronted_VVN with_IW the_AT stubborn_JJ persistence_NN1 of_IO pre-conquest_JJ religion_NN1 amongst_II their_APPGE Indian_JJ charges_NN2 ._. 
Immense_JJ problems_NN2 remained_VVD not_XX merely_RR in_II the_AT campaign_NN1 to_TO destroy_VVI Indian_JJ idols_NN2 ,_, but_CCB in_II teaching_NN1 and_CC reinforcing_VVG the_AT principles_NN2 of_IO the_AT new_JJ faith_NN1 ._. 
Sermons_NN2 and_CC catechisms_NN2 were_VBDR of_RR21 course_RR22 the_AT primary_JJ means_NN of_IO conversion_NN1 ,_, but_CCB images_NN2 of_IO angels_NN2 with_IW guns_NN2 were_VBDR useful_JJ symbols_NN2 of_IO important_JJ teachings_NN2 of_IO the_AT church_NN1 ._. 
The_AT Spaniards_NN2 conquered_VVD the_AT Incas_NP2 with_IW both_DB2 the_AT Cross_NN1 and_CC the_AT arquebus_NN1 ._. 
The_AT key_NN1 to_II understanding_VVG the_AT religious_JJ function_NN1 of_IO these_DD2 images_NN2 is_VBZ found_VVN in_II the_AT gun_NN1 motif_NN1 ._. 
Firearms_NN2 ,_, unknown_JJ to_II the_AT Indians_NN2 at_II the_AT time_NNT1 of_IO the_AT conquest_NN1 ,_, seemed_VVD a_AT1 frightening_JJ manifestation_NN1 of_IO the_AT supernatural_JJ ,_, for_CS they_PPHS2 '_" fled_VVN out_II21 of_II22 fear_NN1 when_CS there_EX was_VBDZ a_AT1 blare_NN1 of_IO trumpets_NN2 ,_, the_AT roar_NN1 of_IO arquebuses_NN2 and_CC artillery_NN1 '_GE ._. 
The_AT firearm_NN1 in_II an_AT1 angel_NN1 's_GE hands_NN2 must_VM have_VHI had_VHN a_AT1 powerful_JJ impact_NN1 on_II Indian_JJ converts_NN2 ._. 
But_CCB since_CS guns_NN2 were_VBDR also_RR used_VVN defensively_RR ,_, the_AT images_NN2 functioned_VVD symbolically_RR as_CSA reminders_NN2 of_IO the_AT protection_NN1 offered_VVN to_II those_DD2 who_PNQS embraced_VVD Christianity_NN1 ._. 
The_AT image_NN1 of_IO the_AT angel_NN1 with_IW a_AT1 gun_NN1 served_VVD a_AT1 secular_JJ as_II31 well_II32 as_II33 a_AT1 religious_JJ function_NN1 by_II emphasising_VVG the_AT lesson_NN1 that_CST the_AT Church_NN1 and_CC the_AT Spanish_JJ colonial_JJ rgime_NN1 were_VBDR united_VVN in_II their_APPGE goal_NN1 to_TO christianize_VVI the_AT Indians_NN2 ._. 
The_AT military_JJ aspect_NN1 of_IO the_AT crusade_NN1 is_VBZ subliminally_RR suggested_VVN by_II the_AT gentle_JJ figure_NN1 who_PNQS handles_VVZ his_APPGE firing_NN1 weapon_NN1 in_II varied_JJ positions_NN2 which_DDQ recall_VV0 those_DD2 of_IO a_AT1 fighting_NN1 force_NN1 ._. 
In_II speaking_VVG about_II the_AT angels_NN2 '_GE clothing_NN1 ,_, Herzberg_NP1 continues_VVZ :_: Far_RG more_RGR important_JJ than_CSN the_AT military_JJ aspects_NN2 of_IO the_AT angel_NN1 's_GE costumes_NN2 are_VBR the_AT explicit_JJ references_NN2 to_II the_AT high_JJ social_JJ status_NN1 of_IO both_DB2 Spanish_JJ colonial_JJ gentlemen_NN2 and_CC Inca_JJ royalty_NN1 ._. 
Richly_RR brocaded_JJ fabrics_NN2 ,_, ribbons_NN2 ,_, and_CC lace_NN1 characterize_VV0 the_AT opulent_JJ viceregal_JJ dress_NN1 of_IO the_AT 17th_MD century_NNT1 ._. 
The_AT gentlemen-aristocratic_JJ nature_NN1 of_IO angels_NN2 with_IW guns_NN2 is_VBZ defined_VVN by_II their_APPGE elegant_JJ dress_NN1 ,_, which_DDQ relates_VVZ them_PPHO2 directly_RR to_II the_AT ruling_JJ viceregal_JJ aristocracy_NN1 ._. 
A_AT1 key_JJ phrase_NN1 here_RL seems_VVZ to_II me_PPIO1 to_TO be_VBI '_GE gentle_JJ figure_NN1 who_PNQS handles_VVZ his_APPGE firing_NN1 weapon_NN1 '_GE ._. 
Although_CS the_AT technical_JJ military_JJ details_NN2 of_IO loading_NN1 and_CC handling_VVG the_AT gun_NN1 and_RR31 so_RR32 on_RR33 ,_, of_IO the_AT angel_NN1 paintings_NN2 ,_, is_VBZ very_RG precise_JJ taken_VVN in_II fact_NN1 from_II a_AT1 Flemish_JJ military_JJ manual_NN1 of_IO 1607_MC the_AT '_GE common_JJ soldier_NN1 '_GE of_IO the_AT image_NN1 in_II the_AT manual_NN1 is_VBZ not_XX retained_VVN :_: he_PPHS1 becomes_VVZ the_AT gorgeous_JJ aristocrat_NN1 ._. 
The_AT non-aggressive_JJ angel-like_JJ pose_NN1 ,_, is_VBZ of_RR21 course_RR22 extremely_RR seductive_JJ ,_, which_DDQ makes_VVZ the_AT threat_NN1 of_IO force_NN1 oblique_NN1 ,_, only_RR implied_VVN ,_, as_CS21 if_CS22 a_AT1 beautiful_JJ face_NN1 was_VBDZ being_VBG laid_VVN over_II the_AT ugly_JJ face_NN1 of_IO violent_JJ coercion_NN1 ._. 
Are_VBR these_DD2 pictures_NN2 simply_RR transcriptions_NN2 of_IO power_NN1 ,_, in_II which_DDQ the_AT hard_JJ approach_NN1 is_VBZ mixed_VVN with_IW the_AT soft_JJ ,_, and_CC the_AT Church_NN1 is_VBZ allied_VVN with_IW the_AT State_NN1 (_( and_CC in_II this_DD1 case_NN1 hinting_VVG as_RR21 well_RR22 ,_, not_XX just_RR at_II the_AT foreigner_NN1 's_GE domination_NN1 of_IO the_AT native_JJ inhabitants_NN2 but_CCB also_RR at_II class_NN1 conflict_NN1 within_II colonial_JJ society_NN1 ,_, since_CS the_AT angel_NN1 is_VBZ a_AT1 mlange_NN1 of_IO Spanish_JJ and_CC Inca_JJ aristocracies_NN2 )_) ?_? 
Perhaps_RR ._. 
But_CCB again_RT they_PPHS2 seem_VV0 to_II me_PPIO1 more_RRR enigmatic_JJ ,_, more_RGR multiple_JJ images_NN2 full_JJ of_IO aesthetic_JJ tensions_NN2 ._. 
Can_VM one_PN1 again_RT make_VVI a_AT1 conflation_NN1 between_II domination_NN1 and_CC rebellion_NN1 in_II the_AT image_NN1 ,_, an_AT1 expression_NN1 of_IO both_DB2 the_AT Church/State_NN1 and_CC the_AT Indian_JJ wishes_NN2 ?_? 
Leopoldo_NP1 Castedo_NP1 writes_VVZ :_: The_AT prestige_NN1 of_IO the_AT armed_JJ archangel_NN1 was_VBDZ and_CC is_VBZ still_RR very_RG great_JJ ._. 
In_II mestizo_NN1 architectural_JJ decoration_NN1 of_IO the_AT 18th_MD century_NNT1 ,_, the_AT archangel_NN1 brandishing_VVG the_AT flaming_JJ sword_NN1 had_VHD a_AT1 prominent_JJ place_NN1 (_( particularly_RR fine_JJ examples_NN2 are_VBR in_II the_AT Cathedral_NN1 of_IO Puno_NP1 and_CC San_NP1 Lorenzo_NP1 ,_, in_II Potosi_NP1 )_) ;_; and_CC in_II the_AT traditional_JJ diablada_NN1 boliviana_NN1 (_( Bolivian_JJ devil_NN1 play_NN1 )_) ,_, a_AT1 religious_JJ drama_NN1 ,_, the_AT Archangel_NP1 Michael_NP1 defeats_NN2 &lsqb;_( ..._... &rsqb;_) the_AT Devil_NN1 of_IO the_AT Seven_MC Masks_NN2 ._. 
In_II 1950_MC ,_, in_II a_AT1 curious_JJ or_CC consistent_JJ coincidence_NN1 (_( as_CSA Castedo_NP1 Pointedly_RR calls_VVZ it_PPH1 $_NN ,_, Pope_NNB Pius_NP1 XII_MC declared_VVD the_AT Archangel_NP1 Michael_NP1 patron_NN1 of_IO police_NN2 a_AT1 decision_NN1 that_CST may_VM well_RR diminish_VVI the_AT archangel_06 's_GE prestige_NN1 in_II Latin_JJ America_NP1 ._. 
'_GE Archangel_NN1 with_IW Gun_NN1 '_GE ,_, by_II an_AT1 anonymous_JJ painter_NN1 of_IO the_AT Cuzco_NP1 School_NN1 ,_, early_RR 18th_MD century_NNT1 ._. 
Oil_NN1 on_II canvas_NN1 ,_, 63_MC 1/4_MF &quot;_03 x_II 39_MC 1/2_MF &quot;_03 ._. 
Museo_NN1 de_NP1 Arte_NP1 ,_, Lima_NP1 ._. 
'_GE Archangel_NN1 with_IW Gun_NN1 '_GE ,_, by_II the_AT Master_NN1 of_IO Calamarca_NP1 (_( Jos_NP1 Lopez_NP1 du_FW los_FW Rios_NP2 ?_? )_) 
Lake_NNL1 Titicaca_NP1 School_NN1 ,_, c._RG 1684_MC ._. 
Oil_NN1 on_II canvas_NN1 ,_, 63_MC 5/8_MF &quot;_03 x_II 46_MC 1/2_MF &quot;_03 ._. 
Museo_NN1 Nacional_FW de_FW Arte_NP1 ,_, La_NP1 Paz_NP1 ._. 
Aside_II21 from_II22 dealing_VVG ,_, as_CSA I_PPIS1 have_VH0 been_VBN doing_VDG ,_, with_IW one_MC1 of_IO the_AT major_JJ subjects_NN2 and_CC themes_NN2 of_IO Cuzco_NP1 painting_NN1 ,_, an_AT1 inventory_NN1 could_VM be_VBI made_VVN of_IO ways_NN2 in_II which_DDQ painters_NN2 departed_VVN from_II European_JJ models_NN2 ,_, or_CC from_II academic_JJ notions_NN2 of_IO excellence_NN1 ._. 
There_EX are_VBR peripheral_JJ insertions_NN2 ,_, like_II borders_NN2 of_IO flowers_NN2 ,_, or_CC tropical_JJ birds_NN2 which_DDQ populate_VV0 the_AT background_NN1 landscapes_NN2 of_IO many_DA2 religious_JJ paintings_NN2 ._. 
Or_CC survivals_NN2 at_II the_AT level_NN1 of_IO colour_NN1 :_: liking_VVG for_IF flat_JJ and_CC intense_JJ colours_NN2 ,_, local_JJ earth_NN1 and_CC vegetable_NN1 dyes_NN2 ,_, which_DDQ may_VM go_VVI all_DB the_AT way_NN1 back_RP to_II the_AT ancient_JJ textile_NN1 traditions_NN2 such_II21 as_II22 that_DD1 of_IO the_AT Paracas_NP2 culture_NN1 in_II Peru_NP1 ._. 
Also_RR ,_, intensification_NN1 of_IO the_AT colours_NN2 in_II the_AT angels_NN2 '_GE wings_NN2 as_CSA compared_VVN with_IW Europe_NP1 ._. 
These_DD2 questions_NN2 were_VBDR not_XX merely_RR '_GE academic_NN1 '_GE ._. 
Disputes_NN2 among_II Spanish_JJ and_CC Indian_JJ painters_NN2 themselves_PPX2 ,_, in_II some_DD ways_NN2 antecedents_NN2 of_IO all_DB subsequent_JJ debates_NN2 around_II '_GE indigenism_NN1 '_GE ,_, go_VV0 back_RP to_II the_AT early_JJ days_NNT2 in_II Cuzco_NP1 ._. 
In_II 1688_MC the_AT Cuzco_NP1 guild_NN1 of_IO painters_NN2 split_VVD ._. 
The_AT immediate_JJ reason_NN1 seems_VVZ to_TO have_VHI been_VBN that_DD1 Indian_JJ painters_NN2 working_VVG for_IF some_DD of_IO the_AT Spanish_JJ and_CC criollo_NN1 masters_NN2 complained_VVD of_IO mistreatment_NN1 ._. 
The_AT Spanish_NN1 admitted_VVD their_APPGE guilt_NN1 but_CCB no_AT agreement_NN1 could_VM be_VBI reached_VVN and_CC the_AT two_MC sides_NN2 moved_VVD apart_RL ._. 
The_AT Spanish_JJ guild_NN1 tightened_VVD its_APPGE European_JJ rules_NN2 of_IO style_NN1 ._. 
The_AT Indian_JJ painters_NN2 lost_VVD contact_NN1 with_IW European_JJ developments_NN2 and_CC ,_, according_II21 to_II22 Teresa_NP1 Gisbert_NP1 ,_, '_GE sought_JJ inspiration_NN1 both_RR in_II the_AT old_JJ styles_NN2 and_CC in_II their_APPGE own_DA tastes_NN2 and_CC traditions_NN2 '_GE ,_, a_AT1 mixture_NN1 of_IO ornamental_JJ stylisation_NN1 with_IW observation_NN1 of_IO the_AT reality_NN1 around_II them_PPHO2 ._. 
Their_APPGE religious_JJ pictures_NN2 ,_, she_PPHS1 writes_VVZ ,_, '_GE belong_VV0 to_II an_AT1 archaic_JJ world_NN1 &lsqb;_( ..._... $_NN who_PNQS viewed_VVD the_AT religious_JJ realm_NN1 as_CSA something_PN1 '_GE different_JJ '_GE from_II mundane_JJ reality_NN1 ._. 
'_GE The_AT argument_NN1 so_RG far_RR has_VHZ been_VBN intended_VVN to_TO put_VVI forward_RL the_AT possibility_NN1 that_CST an_AT1 art_NN1 work_NN1 or_CC image_NN1 could_VM be_VBI official_JJ and_CC coercive_JJ ,_, and_CC unofficial_JJ and_CC subversive_JJ ,_, all_DB at_II the_AT same_DA time_NNT1 ._. 
The_AT example_NN1 I_PPIS1 have_VH0 given_VVN is_VBZ by_RR31 no_RR32 means_RR33 the_AT only_JJ one_PN1 that_CST exists_VVZ ._. 
The_AT same_DA process_NN1 has_VHZ been_VBN documented_VVN in_II other_JJ situations_NN2 where_RRQ a_AT1 people_NN have_VH0 been_VBN conquered_VVN ,_, colonised_JJ and_CC their_APPGE cultural_JJ beliefs_NN2 assaulted_VVD ._. 
Eduardo_NP1 Mondlane_NP1 found_VVD that_CST African_JJ carvers_NN2 in_II nineteenth-century_JJ and_CC early_RR twentieth-century_JJ Mozambique_NP1 had_VHD made_VVN their_APPGE own_DA use_NN1 of_IO Christian_JJ themes_NN2 imposed_VVN by_II priests_NN2 and_CC missionaries_NN2 :_: When_RRQ a_AT1 &lsqb;_( makonde_NN1 &rsqb;_) sculptor_NN1 departs_VVZ from_II the_AT stereotype_NN1 &lsqb;_( ..._... $_NN this_DD1 is_VBZ nearly_RR always_RR because_CS an_AT1 element_NN1 of_IO doubt_NN1 or_CC defiance_NN1 has_VHZ been_VBN worked_VVN into_II it_PPH1 ;_; a_AT1 madonna_NN1 is_VBZ given_VVN a_AT1 demon_NN1 to_TO hold_VVI instead_II21 of_II22 the_AT Christ_NP1 Child_NN1 ;_; a_AT1 priest_NN1 is_VBZ represented_VVN with_IW the_AT feet_NN2 of_IO a_AT1 wild_JJ animal_NN1 ,_, a_AT1 piet_NN1 becomes_VVZ a_AT1 study_NN1 not_XX of_IO sorrow_NN1 but_CCB of_IO revenge_NN1 ,_, with_IW the_AT mother_NN1 raising_VVG a_AT1 spear_NN1 over_II the_AT body_NN1 of_IO her_APPGE dead_JJ son_NN1 ._. 
Magazine_NN1 advertisement_NN1 ,_, featuring_VVG a_AT1 painting_NN1 by_II Botero_NP1 ._. 
Such_DA images_NN2 may_VM startlingly_RR demonstrate_VVI the_AT general_JJ truth_NN1 that_CST the_AT meaning_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 work_NN1 can_VM not_XX simply_RR be_VBI equated_VVN with_IW its_APPGE subject_NN1 ._. 
But_CCB particularly_RR intriguing_JJ is_VBZ the_AT phenomenon_NN1 of_IO syncretisation_NN1 itself_PPX1 ,_, as_CSA an_AT1 artistic_JJ process_NN1 ,_, and_CC its_APPGE relationship_NN1 to_II meaning_NN1 :_: the_AT process_NN1 whereby_RRQ something_PN1 new_JJ is_VBZ created_VVN that_CST can_VM not_XX simply_RR be_VBI reduced_VVN to_II either_DD1 side_NN1 of_IO two_MC antagonistic_JJ forces_NN2 ,_, or_CC returned_VVN to_II a_AT1 former_DA '_GE purity_NN1 '_GE ._. 
A_AT1 new_JJ '_GE in-between_II '_GE is_VBZ created_VVN ._. 
This_DD1 is_VBZ especially_RR true_JJ in_II the_AT context_NN1 of_IO Latin_JJ America_NP1 where_CS this_DD1 kind_NN1 of_IO duality_NN1 and_CC fusion_NN1 has_VHZ been_VBN a_AT1 feature_NN1 of_IO culture_NN1 from_II the_AT time_NNT1 of_IO the_AT conquest_NN1 right_NN1 up_II21 until_II22 today_RT both_RR on_II the_AT popular_JJ and_CC the_AT intellectual_JJ level_NN1 ._. 
'_GE Latin_JJ America_NP1 is_VBZ such_DA a_AT1 syncretic_JJ ,_, eccentric_JJ ,_, disjointed_JJ fusion_NN1 of_IO European_NN1 ,_, Amerindian_JJ and_CC Afro-Caribbean_JJ culture_NN1 ,_, '_GE in_II the_AT words_NN2 of_IO the_AT Mexican_JJ artist_NN1 Guillermo_NP1 Gomez-Pea_NP1 ._. 
Or_CC ,_, as_CSA the_AT Chilean_JJ painter_NN1 Juan_NP1 Davila_NP1 recently_RR put_VV0 it_PPH1 :_: '_" You_PPY take_VV0 something_PN1 of_IO yourself_PPX1 ,_, something_PN1 of_IO the_AT conqueror_NN1 '_GE ._. 
In_II both_DB2 cases_NN2 these_DD2 are_VBR intellectuals_NN2 talking_VVG about_II their_APPGE own_DA work_NN1 by_II linking_VVG it_PPH1 with_IW a_AT1 process_NN1 continually_RR taking_VVG place_NN1 at_II a_AT1 popular_JJ level_NN1 and_CC in_II everyday_JJ life_NN1 ._. 
Today_RT ,_, the_AT image_NN1 of_IO the_AT angel_NN1 is_VBZ still_RR alive_JJ ,_, and_CC still_RR in_II contention_NN1 ;_; it_PPH1 has_VHZ by_RR31 no_RR32 means_RR33 been_VBN merely_RR consigned_VVN to_II the_AT museum_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ still_RR a_AT1 part_NN1 of_IO contemporary_JJ power_NN1 struggles_NN2 ._. 
On_II the_AT one_MC1 hand_NN1 it_PPH1 has_VHZ appeared_VVN as_II a_AT1 focus_NN1 for_IF resistance_NN1 ._. 
The_AT militant_JJ angel_NN1 appeared_VVD ,_, for_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, in_II wall_NN1 paintings_NN2 in_II Haiti_NP1 during_II the_AT shortlived_JJ popular_JJ uprising_NN1 for_IF food_NN1 and_CC democracy_NN1 of_IO 1986_MC ._. 
The_AT extraordinarily_RR effective_JJ popular_JJ figure_NN1 of_IO the_AT masked_JJ Superbarrio_NP1 ,_, who_PNQS emerged_VVD spontaneously_RR to_TO lead_VVI the_AT movement_NN1 to_TO demand_VVI the_AT provision_NN1 of_IO proper_JJ housing_NN1 in_II the_AT aftermath_NN1 of_IO the_AT disastrous_JJ Mexican_JJ earthquake_NN1 of_IO 1986_MC ,_, surely_RR appeals_VVZ to_II memories_NN2 of_IO the_AT angel-enabler_NN1 ,_, along_II21 with_II22 references_NN2 to_II Mexican_JJ popular_JJ masked_JJ wrestling_NN1 heroes_NN2 and_CC perhaps_RR to_II Superman_NP1 ._. 
At_II the_AT same_DA time_NNT1 ,_, the_AT armed_JJ angel_NN1 is_VBZ continually_RR reproduced_VVN as_II a_AT1 figure_NN1 of_IO folklore_NN1 ,_, a_AT1 naive_JJ stereotype_NN1 of_IO Latin_JJ America_NP1 ,_, typically_RR exploited_VVN in_II the_AT paintings_NN2 of_IO Fernando_NP1 Botero_NP1 ,_, the_AT highest_JJT selling_NN1 Latin_JJ American_JJ artist_NN1 in_II the_AT world_NN1 today_RT ._. 
His_APPGE shallow_JJ humour_NN1 trades_NN2 in_RP ,_, but_CCB misses_VVZ the_AT actual_JJ drama_NN1 and_CC sensibility_NN1 of_IO that_DD1 hybrid_JJ fusion_NN1 of_IO the_AT aristocratic_JJ and_CC the_AT popular_JJ which_DDQ took_VVD place_NN1 all_DB those_DD2 years_NNT2 ago_RA in_II Cuzco_NP1 ._. 
Symbolic_JJ angel_NN1 lances_NN2 a_AT1 Tonton_NP1 Macoute_NP1 on_II a_AT1 mural_NN1 in_II Port-au-Prince_NP1 ,_, Haiti_NP1 ,_, 1989_MC ._. 
Photo_NN1 by_II Pablo_NP1 Butcher_NP1 ._. 
An_AT1 Inca_JJ Warrior_NN1 in_II the_AT guise_NN1 of_IO the_AT Archangel_NP1 Michael_NP1 with_IW a_AT1 flaming_JJ sword_NN1 ._. 
Stone_NN1 carving_VVG in_II a_AT1 church_NN1 at_II Potosi_NP1 ,_, Bolivia_NP1 ,_, 18th_MD century_NNT1 ._. 
'_GE Popular_JJ culture_NN1 is_VBZ not_XX what_DDQ is_VBZ technically_RR called_VVN folklore_NN1 ,_, but_CCB the_AT popular_JJ language_NN1 of_IO permanent_JJ historical_JJ rebellion_NN1 ._. 
'_" This_DD1 sentence_NN1 ,_, by_II the_AT Brazilian_JJ film-maker_NN1 Glauber_NP1 Rocha_NP1 ,_, written_VVN at_II the_AT turn_NN1 of_IO the_AT 1970s_MC2 ,_, clearly_RR identifies_VVZ a_AT1 form_NN1 of_IO expression_NN1 with_IW a_AT1 mass_NN1 of_IO oppressed_JJ people_NN whose_DDQGE experience_NN1 has_VHZ been_VBN continuous_JJ over_II at_RR21 least_RR22 four_MC centuries_NNT2 ._. 
And_CC Glauber_NP1 also_RR implies_VVZ that_CST the_AT forms_NN2 and_CC images_NN2 in_II which_DDQ this_DD1 experience_NN1 is_VBZ expressed_VVN are_VBR not_XX fixed_JJ but_CCB open_VV0 and_CC changing_VVG ._. 
The_AT sentence_NN1 comes_VVZ from_II an_AT1 essay_NN1 called_VVN Eztetyke_NP1 du_FW Rve_NP1 ,_, an_AT1 eccentric_JJ spelling_NN1 of_IO Esthtique_NP1 du_FW Rve_NP1 (_( '_GE Aesthetic_JJ of_IO the_AT Dream'_NP1 )_) in_II which_DDQ ,_, building_VVG on_II the_AT idea_NN1 that_DD1 '_VBZ the_AT dream_NN1 is_VBZ the_AT only_JJ right_NN1 which_DDQ can_VM not_XX be_VBI forbidden_JJ '_GE ,_, Glauber_NP1 Rocha_NP1 described_VVD how_RRQ he_PPHS1 had_VHD come_VVN to_TO realise_VVI the_AT revolutionary_JJ importance_NN1 of_IO the_AT mystical_JJ in_II Latin_JJ American_JJ popular_JJ culture_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 was_VBDZ the_AT only_JJ way_NN1 of_IO contesting_VVG that_DD1 '_VBZ bourgeois_JJ reason_NN1 '_GE which_DDQ ,_, for_IF him_PPHO1 ,_, was_VBDZ as_RG much_RR a_AT1 feature_NN1 of_IO left-wing_JJ political_JJ programmes_NN2 as_CSA it_PPH1 was_VBDZ of_IO traditional_JJ colonial_JJ domination_NN1 ._. 
In_II his_APPGE 1965_MC article_NN1 ,_, '_GE Aesthetic_JJ of_IO Hunger_NN1 '_GE ,_, enormously_RR influential_JJ on_II Third_MD World_NN1 cinema_NN1 and_CC art_NN1 ,_, Glauber_NP1 felt_VVD he_PPHS1 had_VHD given_VVN '_GE the_AT measure_NN1 of_IO my_APPGE rational_JJ understanding_NN1 of_IO poverty_NN1 '_GE ._. 
By_II 1971_MC he_PPHS1 was_VBDZ saying_VVG that_CST ,_, as_CSA artists_NN2 :_: We_PPIS2 must_VM touch_VVI ,_, by_II communion_NN1 ,_, the_AT vital_JJ point_NN1 of_IO poverty_NN1 which_DDQ is_VBZ its_APPGE mysticism_NN1 ._. 
This_DD1 mysticism_NN1 is_VBZ the_AT only_JJ language_NN1 which_DDQ transcends_VVZ the_AT rational_JJ schema_NN1 of_IO oppression_NN1 ._. 
The_AT role_NN1 of_IO the_AT angel_NN1 as_II an_AT1 intermediary_NN1 between_II the_AT human_NN1 and_CC the_AT mystical_JJ world_NN1 ,_, and_CC its_APPGE elaborate_JJ beautifying_NN1 as_II a_AT1 vehicle_NN1 of_IO the_AT dream_NN1 ,_, would_VM seem_VVI to_TO tie_VVI in_RP closely_RR with_IW Glauber_NP1 's_GE identification_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 continuing_JJ thread_NN1 of_IO psychological_JJ resistance_NN1 in_II Latin_JJ American_JJ culture_NN1 ._. 
The_AT writer_NN1 would_VM like_VVI to_TO express_VVI his_APPGE appreciation_NN1 of_IO the_AT art_NN1 historical_JJ studies_NN2 of_IO Teresa_NP1 Gisbert_NP1 ,_, Leopoldo_NP1 Castedo_NP1 ,_, Julia_NP1 P._NP1 Herzberg_NP1 and_CC dr_NNU Luis_NP1 Enrique_NP1 Tord_NP1 ,_, to_II which_DDQ he_PPHS1 has_VHZ been_VBN deeply_RR indebted_JJ in_II writing_VVG this_DD1 article_NN1 ._. 
'_" HER_APPGE DRESS_NN1 HANGS_VVZ HERE'_NP1 :_: DE-FROCKING_VVG THE_AT KAHLO_NP1 CULT_NN1 Oriana_NP1 Baddeley_NP1 The_AT 1990s_MC2 have_VH0 witnessed_VVN a_AT1 shift_NN1 in_II the_AT art_NN1 establishment_NN1 's_GE attitudes_NN2 towards_II art_NN1 produced_VVN outside_II21 of_II22 its_APPGE traditional_JJ parameters_NN2 ._. 
The_AT work_NN1 of_IO previously_RR marginalised_JJ artists_NN2 has_VHZ become_VVN an_AT1 area_NN1 of_IO rich_JJ speculation_NN1 among_II art_NN1 dealers_NN2 priced_VVN out_II21 of_II22 the_AT '_GE modern_JJ masters_NN2 '_GE market_NN1 ._. 
Almost_RR every_AT1 year_NNT1 has_VHZ witnessed_VVN the_AT discovery_NN1 of_IO new_JJ artistic_JJ terrain_NN1 graffiti_NN art_NN1 ,_, Soviet_JJ art_NN1 ,_, Australian_JJ art_NN1 ,_, the_AT art_NN1 of_IO Latin_JJ America_NP1 ._. 
The_AT major_JJ auction_NN1 houses_NN2 have_VH0 moved_VVN with_IW the_AT times_NNT2 and_CC have_VH0 found_VVN new_JJ ways_NN2 of_IO selling_VVG works_NN which_DDQ in_II both_RR form_VV0 and_CC content_NN1 would_VM have_VHI proved_VVN an_AT1 unstable_JJ investment_NN1 a_AT1 decade_NNT1 ago_RA ._. 
The_AT current_JJ status_NN1 of_IO the_AT work_NN1 of_IO the_AT Mexican_JJ painter_NN1 Frida_NP1 Kahlo_NP1 is_VBZ a_AT1 dramatic_JJ example_NN1 of_IO this_DD1 change_NN1 ._. 
Once_RR known_VVN primarily_RR as_CSA the_AT wife_NN1 of_IO Diego_NP1 Rivera_NP1 ,_, her_APPGE reputation_NN1 outside_II21 of_II22 Mexico_NP1 now_RT far_RR supercedes_VVZ his_APPGE :_: since_II 1919_MC ,_, sale_NN1 room_NN1 estimates_NN2 of_IO her_APPGE work_NN1 have_VH0 risen_VVN from_II $40,000_NNU to_II over_RG $1_NNU million_NNO ,_, and_CC in_II 1990_MC a_AT1 work_NN1 by_II Kahlo_NP1 broke_VVD all_DB records_NN2 at_II Sotheby_NP1 's_GE New_NP1 York_NP1 for_IF a_AT1 Latin_JJ American_JJ artist_NN1 ._. 
The_AT enormous_JJ rise_NN1 in_II the_AT economic_JJ value_NN1 of_IO her_APPGE work_NN1 has_VHZ developed_VVN in_II tandem_NN1 with_IW the_AT increased_JJ critical_JJ and_CC popular_JJ response_NN1 to_II her_APPGE particular_JJ blend_NN1 of_IO naive_JJ style_NN1 and_CC incisive_JJ content_NN1 ._. 
While_CS the_AT first_MD wave_NN1 of_IO popular_JJ interest_NN1 arose_VVD with_IW the_AT 1982_MC Whitechapel_NP1 exhibition_NN1 instigated_VVN by_II Laura_NP1 Mulvey_NP1 and_CC Peter_NP1 Wollen_NP1 ,_, it_PPH1 was_VBDZ the_AT publication_NN1 of_IO Hayden_NP1 Herrera_NP1 's_GE biography_NN1 of_IO Kahlo_NP1 in_II 1983_MC which_DDQ has_VHZ led_VVN to_II her_APPGE current_JJ cult_NN1 status_NN1 ._. 
Since_CS that_DD1 date_NN1 she_PPHS1 has_VHZ been_VBN the_AT subject_NN1 of_IO TV_NN1 documentaries_NN2 ,_, a_AT1 feature_NN1 film_NN1 (_( '_GE Frida_NP1 '_GE by_II Paul_NP1 Leduc_NP1 )_) ,_, a_AT1 stage_NN1 play_NN1 ,_, numerous_JJ publications_NN2 and_CC the_AT inspiration_NN1 for_IF designer_NN1 clothing_NN1 ._. 
In_II May_NPM1 1989_MC Elle_FW magazine_NN1 ran_VVD a_AT1 16_MC page_NN1 feature_NN1 on_II Frida_NP1 Kahlo_NP1 as_II the_AT '_GE spirit_NN1 of_IO Mexico_NP1 '_GE (_( Fig._NN1 1_MC1 )_) ,_, while_CS in_II Vogue_NN1 (_( Feb._NPM1 1990_MC )_) there_EX was_VBDZ a_AT1 10_MC page_NN1 interpretation_NN1 of_IO '_GE the_AT romance_NN1 of_IO Frida_NP1 Kahlo_NP1 's_GE Mexico_NP1 '_GE (_( Fig._NN1 2_MC )_) ._. 
Almost_RR as_II a_AT1 logical_JJ outcome_NN1 of_IO this_DD1 media_NN blitz_NN1 ,_, it_PPH1 emerged_VVD in_II the_AT summer_NNT1 of_IO 1990_MC that_CST Madonna_NP1 ,_, already_RR a_AT1 devotee_NN1 of_IO Kahlo_NP1 's_GE work_NN1 ,_, was_VBDZ commissioning_VVG a_AT1 screenplay_NN1 based_VVN on_II Kahlo_NP1 's_GE life_NN1 ._. 
Fig._NN1 1_MC1 ._. 
Elle_FW Magazine_NN1 ,_, May_NPM1 1989_MC ,_, p._NN1 1819_MC ._. 
As_CSA with_IW most_DAT artists_NN2 who_PNQS have_VH0 become_VVN mythical_JJ personalities_NN2 in_II the_AT popular_JJ imagination_NN1 ,_, such_DA attention_NN1 has_VHZ focused_VVN primarily_RR on_II the_AT anecdotal_JJ and_CC tragic_JJ details_NN2 of_IO Kahlo_NP1 's_GE admittedly_RR fascinating_JJ life_NN1 ._. 
The_AT passionate_JJ obsession_NN1 with_IW her_APPGE husband_NN1 Diego_NP1 Rivera_NP1 ,_, her_APPGE flamboyant_JJ appearance_NN1 ,_, but_CCB most_DAT of_IO all_DB her_APPGE physical_JJ and_CC emotional_JJ pain_NN1 have_VH0 come_VVN to_TO dominate_VVI responses_NN2 to_II her_APPGE work_NN1 ._. 
While_CS Kahlo_NP1 's_GE art_NN1 helped_VVD her_PPHO1 to_TO deal_VVI with_IW the_AT vicissitudes_NN2 of_IO her_APPGE life_NN1 ,_, for_IF most_DAT audiences_NN2 it_PPH1 is_VBZ her_APPGE life_NN1 story_NN1 which_DDQ allows_VVZ access_NN1 to_II her_APPGE art_NN1 ._. 
In_II this_DD1 one_PN1 can_VM draw_VVI obvious_JJ parallels_NN2 to_II the_AT appeal_NN1 of_IO Van_NP1 Gogh_NP1 ,_, a_AT1 traditionally_RR popular_JJ artist_NN1 recently_RR made_VVN fashionable_JJ by_II the_AT media_NN attention_NN1 generated_VVN during_II the_AT centennial_JJ of_IO his_APPGE death_NN1 ._. 
The_AT archetypal_JJ dropout/spiritualist_NN1 became_VVD an_AT1 appropriate_JJ icon_NN1 for_IF the_AT sixties_MC2 revival_NN1 of_IO 1990_MC 's_VBZ long_RR hot_JJ summer_NNT1 ._. 
Yet_RR despite_II the_AT iconic_JJ status_NN1 of_IO Van_NP1 Gogh_NP1 's_GE '_GE tragic_JJ '_GE life_NN1 ,_, it_PPH1 is_VBZ the_AT appearance_NN1 of_IO his_APPGE work_NN1 by_II which_DDQ he_PPHS1 is_VBZ ultimately_RR signified_VVN ,_, his_APPGE thick_JJ impasto_NN1 brush-stroke_NN1 ,_, his_APPGE vibrant_JJ yellows_NN2 ,_, the_AT urgency_NN1 of_IO his_APPGE creative_JJ drive_NN1 ._. 
In_II the_AT case_NN1 of_IO Kahlo_NP1 the_AT popular_JJ image_NN1 is_VBZ of_IO the_AT artist_NN1 herself_PPX1 ,_, the_AT characteristic_JJ brows_NN2 ,_, the_AT elaborate_JJ hair_NN1 ,_, the_AT Mexican_JJ costume_NN1 (_( Fig._NN1 3_MC )_) ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ primarily_RR her_APPGE appearance_NN1 ,_, not_XX the_AT formal_JJ language_NN1 of_IO her_APPGE art_NN1 ,_, that_DD1 has_VHZ graced_VVN the_AT pages_NN2 of_IO Elle_FW and_CC Vogue_NN1 magazines_NN2 ._. 
The_AT Elle_FW feature_NN1 transposed_VVD the_AT '_GE Kahlo_NP1 style_NN1 '_GE to_II Kahlo_NP1 lookalikes_NN2 in_II contemporary_JJ clothing_NN1 balanced_VVN around_II segments_NN2 of_IO Herrera_NP1 's_GE biography_NN1 of_IO the_AT artist_NN1 ._. 
In_II the_AT later_JJR Vogue_NN1 piece_NN1 only_RR the_AT style_NN1 remained_VVD as_II the_AT far_RG more_RGR overtly_RR sexual_JJ ,_, Kahloesque_JJ models_NN2 lounged_VVN and_CC pouted_VVN in_II their_APPGE '_GE Mexican_NN1 '_GE interiors_NN2 ._. 
There_EX is_VBZ a_AT1 poignant_JJ irony_NN1 in_II the_AT way_NN1 clothing_NN1 ,_, which_DDQ on_II one_MC1 level_NN1 served_VVD to_TO hide_VVI Kahlo_NP1 's_GE broken_JJ body_NN1 ,_, falls_NN2 or_CC is_VBZ lifted_VVN by_II the_AT model_NN1 to_TO reveal_VVI a_AT1 luxuriantly_RR perfect_JJ physique_NN1 (_( Fig._NN1 4_MC )_) ._. 
The_AT visual_JJ references_NN2 in_II the_AT two_MC magazines_NN2 are_VBR as_RG much_DA1 from_II photos_NN2 of_IO the_AT artist_NN1 as_II21 from_II22 her_APPGE work_NN1 ._. 
In_II both_DB2 features_NN2 she_PPHS1 is_VBZ also_RR seen_VVN to_TO embody_VVI a_AT1 wider_JJR set_NN1 of_IO assumptions_NN2 about_II Mexico_NP1 itself_PPX1 ;_; exotic_JJ ,_, passionate_JJ ,_, yet_RR constantly_RR struggling_VVG against_II pain_NN1 and_CC deceit_NN1 ._. 
While_NNT1 Elle_FW ,_, Vogue_NN1 and_CC subsequently_RR The_AT Independent_NP1 (_( Fig._NN1 5_MC )_) ,_, stressed_VVD different_JJ facets_NN2 of_IO Kahlo_NP1 's_GE public_JJ persona_NN1 ,_, they_PPHS2 all_DB shared_VVD the_AT emphasis_NN1 on_II '_" her_PPHO1 '_GE ,_, as_CSA an_AT1 encapsulisation_NN1 of_IO stereotypical_JJ images_NN2 of_IO Mexico_NP1 ,_, rather_II21 than_II22 her_APPGE work_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ her_APPGE body_NN1 as_II the_AT canvas_NN1 ,_, her_APPGE appearance_NN1 as_CSA art_NN1 ._. 
The_AT art_NN1 of_IO self-expression_NN1 becomes_VVZ self-expression_NN1 as_CSA art_NN1 ._. 
Fig._NN1 2_MC ._. 
Vogue_NN1 ,_, February_NPM1 1990_MC ,_, p._NN1 1301_MC ._. 
Fig._NN1 3_MC ._. 
Elle_FW Magazine_NN1 ,_, May_NPM1 1989_MC ,_, p._NN1 28_MC ._. 
Of_RR21 course_RR22 ,_, the_AT line_NN1 between_II art_NN1 and_CC life_NN1 is_VBZ a_AT1 particularly_RR hard_JJ one_PN1 to_TO draw_VVI in_II Kahlo_NP1 's_GE case_NN1 ._. 
The_AT majority_NN1 of_IO her_APPGE work_NN1 is_VBZ self_NN1 portraiture_NN1 ;_; her_APPGE aesthetic_JJ concerns_NN2 grew_VVD from_II her_APPGE fascination_NN1 with_IW the_AT falsity_NN1 of_IO appearance_NN1 ._. 
Dressing_VVG up_RP ,_, role_NN1 playing_VVG and_CC masquerade_VV0 form_VV0 the_AT conceptual_JJ basis_NN1 of_IO Kahlo_NP1 's_GE work_NN1 ._. 
In_II Self-Portrait_NP1 with_IW Cropped_JJ Hair_NN1 (_( 1944_MC )_) (_( Fig._NN1 6_MC )_) ,_, she_PPHS1 paints_VVZ herself_PPX1 wearing_VVG Rivera_NP1 's_GE suit_NN1 ,_, challenging_VVG traditional_JJ expectations_NN2 of_IO femininity_NN1 and_CC attempting_VVG to_TO appropriate_VVI his_APPGE authority_NN1 (_( while_CS simultaneously_RR )_) threatening_VVG castration_NN1 )_) ._. 
More_RGR disturbingly_RR ,_, in_II The_AT Mask_NN1 (_( 1945_MC )_) (_( Fig._NN1 7_MC )_) ,_, she_PPHS1 throws_VVZ doubt_NN1 on_II too_RG straightforward_JJ a_AT1 reading_NN1 of_IO her_APPGE self-portraits_NN2 as_CSA revealing_JJ of_IO her_APPGE inner_JJ emotions_NN2 ._. 
Where_RRQ does_VDZ the_AT mask_NN1 fall_VVI :_: Does_VDZ not_XX the_AT ritual_JJ repetition_NN1 of_IO those_DD2 familiar_JJ features_NN2 '_GE mask_NN1 '_GE far_RG more_DAR than_CSN it_PPH1 uncovers_VVZ ?_? 
There_EX is_VBZ ,_, however_RR ,_, an_AT1 inevitable_JJ logic_NN1 to_II the_AT appropriation_NN1 of_IO her_PPHO1 meticulously_RR constructed_VVN image_NN1 ,_, a_AT1 process_NN1 which_DDQ the_AT artist_NN1 was_VBDZ mocking_VVG as_RG early_RR as_CSA 1933_MC :_: '_" ..._... some_DD of_IO the_AT gringa_NN1 women_NN2 are_VBR imitating_VVG me_PPIO1 and_CC trying_VVG to_TO dress_NN1 '_GE a_II21 la_II22 Mexicana_NP1 '_GE ,_, but_CCB the_AT poor_JJ souls_NN2 only_RR look_VV0 like_II cabbages_NN2 and_CC to_TO tell_VVI you_PPY the_AT naked_JJ truth_NN1 they_PPHS2 look_VV0 absolutely_RR impossible_JJ ._. 
'_GE The_AT '_GE impossibility_NN1 '_GE stemmed_JJ from_II the_AT failure_NN1 of_IO such_DA followers_NN2 to_TO recognise_VVI the_AT symbolic_JJ importance_NN1 of_IO Kahlo_NP1 's_GE choice_NN1 of_IO clothing_NN1 ,_, a_AT1 failure_NN1 also_RR intrinsic_JJ to_II her_APPGE recent_JJ magazine_NN1 appearances_NN2 ._. 
The_AT particularities_NN2 of_IO post-revolutionary_JJ Mexico_NP1 are_VBR frequently_RR subsumed_VVN by_II the_AT decorativeness_NN1 of_IO the_AT ethnic_JJ ,_, by_II the_AT generalised_JJ attractiveness_NN1 of_IO the_AT radical_JJ avant-garde_NN1 ._. 
For_IF Kahlo_NP1 ,_, however_RR ,_, choosing_VVG to_TO don_VVI the_AT costume_NN1 of_IO the_AT Tehuana_NP1 ,_, as_II21 for_II22 example_NN1 in_II Tree_NN1 of_IO Hope_NP1 (_( 1946_MC )_) (_( Fig._NN1 8_MC )_) ,_, was_VBDZ to_TO embody_VVI a_AT1 powerful_JJ icon_NN1 of_IO cultural_JJ identity_NN1 ._. 
Mexican_JJ Indian_JJ dress_NN1 is_VBZ extraordinarily_RR diverse_JJ and_CC by_RR31 and_RR32 large_RR33 geographically_RR specific_JJ ,_, varying_VVG from_II region_NN1 to_II region_NN1 ._. 
The_AT Tehuana_NP1 dress_NN1 is_VBZ by_RR31 no_RR32 means_RR33 the_AT most_RGT decorative_JJ variant_NN1 or_CC the_AT closest_RRT to_II pre-Hispanic_JJ forms_NN2 of_IO clothing_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ the_AT mythology_NN1 surrounding_VVG the_AT women_NN2 wearers_NN2 of_IO the_AT costume_NN1 which_DDQ directed_VVD Kahlo_NP1 's_GE choice_NN1 ._. 
The_AT ostensibly_RR matriarchal_JJ society_NN1 of_IO Tehuantepec_NP1 led_VVD to_II the_AT adoption_NN1 of_IO the_AT Tehuana_NP1 ,_, in_II post-revolutionary_JJ Mexico_NP1 ,_, as_CSA the_AT image_NN1 of_IO the_AT strong_JJ Indian_JJ woman_NN1 ;_; the_AT undefeated_JJ counterpart_NN1 to_II the_AT despised_JJ '_GE Chingada_NP1 '_GE ,_, who_PNQS ,_, conversely_RR is_VBZ the_AT female_JJ embodiment_NN1 of_IO Mexico_NP1 's_GE hybrid_JJ post-conquest_JJ culture_NN1 ._. 
In_II a_AT1 culture_NN1 where_RRQ sexual_JJ metaphors_NN2 are_VBR frequently_RR used_VVN to_TO convey_VVI racial_JJ and_CC political_JJ conflict_NN1 ,_, the_AT Tehuana_NP1 represents_VVZ that_DD1 aspect_NN1 of_IO Mexico_NP1 's_GE indigenous_JJ tradition_NN1 unbowed_JJ by_II centuries_NNT2 of_IO colonial_JJ and_CC male_JJ rule_NN1 ._. 
Kahlo_NP1 's_GE adoption_NN1 of_IO Tehuana_NP1 dress_NN1 ,_, while_CS being_VBG an_AT1 attractive_JJ disguise_NN1 of_IO what_DDQ she_PPHS1 saw_VVD as_II a_AT1 less_DAR than_CSN perfect_JJ body_NN1 ,_, asserted_VVD both_RR a_AT1 feminist_NN1 and_CC an_AT1 anti-colonialist_JJ position_NN1 ._. 
Fig._NN1 4_MC ._. 
Vogue_NN1 ,_, February_NPM1 1990_MC ,_, p._NN1 138_MC ._. 
Fig._NN1 5_MC ._. 
The_AT Independent_NN1 on_II Sunday_NPD1 ,_, 8th_MD April_NPM1 1990_MC ,_, p._NN1 37_MC ._. 
In_II Kahlo_NP1 's_GE work_NN1 there_EX is_VBZ a_AT1 powerful_JJ mix_NN1 of_IO these_DD2 discourses_NN2 ,_, yet_RR her_APPGE role_NN1 as_II an_AT1 archetypal_JJ woman_NN1 painter_NN1 has_VHZ come_VVN to_TO dominate_VVI responses_NN2 to_II her_APPGE work_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ through_II her_APPGE emergence_NN1 as_II a_AT1 cult_NN1 painter_NN1 of_IO the_AT feminist_JJ movement_NN1 of_IO the_AT 1970s_MC2 that_CST her_APPGE current_JJ reputation_NN1 has_VHZ evolved_VVN ._. 
Her_APPGE work_NN1 almost_RR perfectly_RR illustrates_VVZ debates_NN2 as_II21 to_II22 the_AT nature_NN1 of_IO traditional_JJ exclusions_NN2 of_IO a_AT1 woman_NN1 's_GE art_NN1 ._. 
The_AT fascination_NN1 with_IW functions_NN2 of_IO the_AT body_NN1 ,_, the_AT analogies_NN2 between_II artistic_JJ and_CC physical_JJ creative_JJ processes_NN2 ,_, self-portraiture_NN1 used_VMK to_TO reveal_VVI the_AT female_JJ body_NN1 as_II the_AT site_NN1 of_IO patriarchal_JJ aesthetic_JJ discourse_NN1 ;_; all_DB of_IO these_DD2 mirror_VV0 the_AT concerns_NN2 of_IO many_DA2 women_NN2 painters_NN2 of_IO the_AT 1980s_MC2 ._. 
Fig._NN1 6_MC ._. 
Frida_NP1 Kahlo_NP1 :_: Self-portrait_JJ with_IW cropped_JJ hair_NN1 ,_, 1940_MC ,_, 40x27.9_FO cm_NNU ._. 
Museum_NN1 of_IO Modern_JJ Art_NN1 ,_, New_NP1 York_NP1 ._. 
Fig._NN1 7_MC ._. 
Frida_NP1 Kahlo_NP1 :_: The_AT Mask_NN1 ,_, 1945_MC ,_, 40x30.5_FO cm_NNU ._. 
Coll_NP1 ._. 
Dolores_NP1 Olmeda_NP1 ._. 
Fig._NN1 8_MC ._. 
Frida_NP1 Kahlo_NP1 :_: The_AT Tree_NN1 of_IO Hope_NP1 ,_, 1946_MC ,_, 55.9x40.6_FO cm_NNU ._. 
Coll_NP1 ._. 
Isidore_VV0 Ducasse_NP1 Fine_JJ Arts_NN2 Inc_JJ ._. 
In_II their_APPGE formal_JJ language_NN1 ,_, Kahlo_NP1 's_GE works_NN are_VBR exemplary_JJ of_IO certain_JJ feminist_JJ arguments_NN2 ;_; the_AT adoption_NN1 of_IO the_AT decorative_JJ ,_, the_AT intimate_JJ and_CC non-fine_JJ art_NN1 mediums_NN2 reveals_VVZ the_AT restrictive_JJ nature_NN1 of_IO traditional_JJ definitions_NN2 of_IO '_GE high_JJ art_NN1 '_GE ._. 
This_58 '_GE appropriateness_NN1 '_GE of_IO Kahlo_NP1 's_VBZ aesthetic_JJ to_II contemporary_JJ debate_NN1 has_VHZ tended_VVN to_TO remove_VVI her_APPGE work_NN1 from_II its_APPGE historical_JJ context_NN1 ,_, to_TO stress_VVI the_AT collective_NN1 and_CC the_AT cross-cultural_JJ ._. 
Although_CS this_DD1 is_VBZ not_XX in_II itself_PPX1 to_TO be_VBI dismissed_VVN as_II a_AT1 tactic_NN1 ,_, it_PPH1 has_VHZ diminished_VVN the_AT complexity_NN1 of_IO Kahlo_NP1 's_GE achievement_NN1 as_II a_AT1 specifically_RR Mexican_JJ painter_NN1 ,_, operating_VVG within_II the_AT particularities_NN2 of_IO her_APPGE historical_JJ moment_NN1 ._. 
More_RGR problematic_JJ is_VBZ the_AT way_NN1 in_II which_DDQ such_DA a_AT1 dislocation_NN1 has_VHZ led_VVN to_II the_AT acceptance_NN1 of_IO her_APPGE '_GE Mexicanness_NP1 '_GE as_RG mere_JJ decoration_NN1 of_IO the_AT essentially_RR feminist_JJ themes_NN2 of_IO her_APPGE work_NN1 ,_, thereby_RR defusing_VVG a_AT1 substantial_JJ part_NN1 of_IO the_AT art_NN1 described_VVN by_II Breton_NP1 as_II a_AT1 '_GE ribbon_NN1 round_II a_AT1 bomb_NN1 '_GE ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ the_AT ribbon_NN1 that_CST runs_VVZ through_II the_AT pages_NN2 of_IO Vogue_NN1 ,_, the_AT glossy_JJ surface_NN1 of_IO the_AT images_NN2 in_II direct_JJ opposition_NN1 to_II a_AT1 work_NN1 such_II21 as_II22 Kahlo_NP1 's_GE The_AT Suicide_NN1 of_IO Dorothy_NP1 Hale_NP1 (_( 1939_MC )_) (_( Fig._NN1 9_MC )_) ._. 
In_II this_DD1 painting_NN1 ,_, a_AT1 memorial_NN1 to_II a_AT1 woman_NN1 's_GE tragic_JJ death_NN1 is_VBZ transformed_VVN into_II an_AT1 indictment_NN1 of_IO the_AT culture_NN1 which_DDQ destroyed_VVD her_PPHO1 ._. 
Hale_NP1 's_GE suicide_NN1 became_VVD a_AT1 poignant_JJ metaphor_NN1 for_IF the_AT oppressive_JJ nature_NN1 of_IO the_AT social_JJ values_NN2 of_IO New_NP1 York_NP1 and_CC North_ND1 America_NP1 in_RR21 general_RR22 ._. 
The_AT story_NN1 behind_II Hale_NP1 's_GE death_NN1 was_VBDZ one_PN1 with_IW which_DDQ Kahlo_NP1 obviously_RR identified_VVN ,_, and_CC within_II which_DDQ dress_NN1 formed_VVD an_AT1 important_JJ symbolic_JJ function_NN1 ._. 
Before_II jumping_VVG from_II the_AT window_NN1 of_IO her_APPGE apartment_NN1 ,_, Hale_NP1 had_VHD dressed_VVN meticulously_RR in_II her_APPGE most_RGT flattering_JJ dress_NN1 ,_, the_AT corsage_NN1 of_IO yellow_JJ roses_NN2 a_AT1 gift_NN1 from_II a_AT1 male_JJ admirer_NN1 ._. 
In_II Kahlo_NP1 's_GE painting_NN1 ,_, the_AT figure_NN1 falls_VVZ from_II the_AT fantasy_NN1 world_NN1 she_PPHS1 has_VHZ inhabited_VVN to_II the_AT harsh_JJ bloodspattered_JJ reality_NN1 of_IO the_AT street_NN1 ,_, literally_RR coming_VVG down_RP to_II earth_NN1 ._. 
Hale_NP1 's_GE eyes_NN2 stare_VV0 knowingly_RR at_II the_AT viewer_NN1 ,_, a_AT1 human_JJ sacrifice_NN1 to_II an_AT1 alienated_JJ and_CC consumerist_NN1 culture_NN1 ._. 
The_AT horizontality_NN1 of_IO her_APPGE fallen_JJ body_NN1 is_VBZ juxtaposed_VVN to_II the_AT vertical_JJ thrust_NN1 of_IO the_AT apartment_NN1 building_NN1 ._. 
She_PPHS1 leaps_VVZ from_II an_AT1 architectural_JJ monument_NN1 to_II a_AT1 phallocentric_JJ world_NN1 ._. 
Although_CS destroyed_VVN ,_, she_PPHS1 has_VHZ also_RR escaped_VVN ._. 
The_AT painting_NN1 ,_, dedicated_VVN to_II Hale_NP1 's_GE mother_NN1 ,_, was_VBDZ commissioned_VVN by_II a_AT1 mutual_JJ friend_NN1 of_IO Kahlo_NP1 and_CC Dorothy_NP1 Hale_NP1 ,_, the_AT managing_JJ editor_NN1 of_IO Vanity_NN1 Fair_NN1 ,_, Clare_NP1 Boothe_NP1 Luce_NP1 ._. 
The_AT painting_NN1 was_VBDZ agreed_VVN to_II by_II Luce_NP1 in_RR21 part_RR22 to_TO recompense_VVI for_IF what_DDQ she_PPHS1 saw_VVD as_CSA her_APPGE misjudgment_NN1 of_IO her_APPGE dead_JJ friend_NN1 ._. 
Having_VHG lent_VVN Hale_NP1 money_NN1 to_TO pay_VVI her_APPGE rent_NN1 she_PPHS1 had_VHD been_VBN angered_VVN to_TO discover_VVI her_PPHO1 spending_VVG enormous_JJ sums_NN2 on_II an_AT1 haute-couture_JJ dress_NN1 ,_, and_CC refused_VVD to_TO turn_VVI up_II21 to_II22 what_DDQ ,_, in_II retrospect_NN1 ,_, became_VVD Hale_NP1 's_GE farewell_NN1 party_NN1 ._. 
Later_RRR it_PPH1 was_VBDZ revealed_VVN that_CST the_AT money_NN1 had_VHD come_VVN from_II a_AT1 different_JJ source_NN1 ._. 
A_AT1 male_JJ friend_NN1 had_VHD tried_VVN to_TO dissuade_VVI Hale_NP1 from_II seeking_VVG a_AT1 much_RR needed_VVN job_NN1 and_CC had_VHD given_VVN her_PPHO1 a_AT1 thousand_NNO dollars_NNU2 to_TO buy_VVI '_GE the_AT most_RGT beautiful_JJ dress_NN1 in_II New_NP1 York_NP1 '_GE ,_, telling_VVG her_PPHO1 that_CST what_DDQ she_PPHS1 needed_VVD was_VBDZ to_TO find_VVI a_AT1 rich_JJ husband_NN1 ._. 
On_II one_MC1 level_NN1 this_DD1 work_NN1 deals_VVZ with_IW a_AT1 generalised_JJ '_GE woman_NN1 's_GE experience_NN1 '_GE ,_, yet_RR the_AT metaphorical_JJ power_NN1 of_IO Dorothy_NP1 Hale_NP1 's_GE dress_NN1 derives_VVZ from_II Kahlo_NP1 's_GE use_NN1 of_IO clothing_NN1 in_II her_APPGE own_DA self-portraits_NN2 ._. 
Dress_VV0 not_XX only_JJ covers_NN2 and_CC decorates_VVZ the_AT body_NN1 but_CCB instils_VVZ in_II the_AT wearer_NN1 its_APPGE own_DA characteristic_JJ strengths_NN2 and_CC weaknesses_NN2 ._. 
Hale_NP1 's_GE black_JJ velvet_NN1 dress_NN1 is_VBZ cursed_VVN because_CS it_PPH1 represents_VVZ the_AT values_NN2 of_IO the_AT '_GE Gringolandia_NP1 '_GE so_RR hated_VVD by_II Kahlo_NP1 ._. 
In_II those_DD2 paintings_NN2 where_RRQ Kahlo_NP1 wears_VVZ European_JJ dress_NN1 she_PPHS1 is_VBZ passive_JJ ,_, weak_JJ and_CC unable_JK to_TO control_VVI her_APPGE own_DA destiny_NN1 ,_, but_CCB in_II the_AT Tehuana_NP1 costume_NN1 she_PPHS1 is_VBZ strong_JJ ,_, powerful_JJ ,_, hopeful_JJ ._. 
Unclothed_JJ ,_, her_APPGE body_NN1 becomes_VVZ yet_RR more_RGR vulnerable_JJ ,_, but_CCB as_CSA Jean_NP1 Franco_NP1 states_VVZ :_: The_AT unclothed_JJ body_NN1 is_VBZ not_XX a_AT1 '_GE self_NN1 but_CCB a_AT1 socialised_JJ body_NN1 ,_, a_AT1 body_NN1 that_CST is_VBZ opened_VVN by_II instruments_NN2 ,_, technologized_VVD ,_, wounded_VVD ,_, its_APPGE organs_NN2 displayed_VVN to_II the_AT outside_JJ world_NN1 ._. 
The_AT '_GE inner_JJ '_GE Frida_NP1 is_VBZ controlled_VVN by_II modern_JJ society_NN1 far_RG more_DAR than_CSN the_AT clothed_JJ Frida_NP1 ,_, who_PNQS often_RR marks_VVZ her_APPGE deviation_NN1 from_II the_AT norm_NN1 by_II defiantly_RR returning_VVG the_AT gaze_NN1 of_IO the_AT viewer_NN1 ._. 
Kahlo_NP1 's_GE naked_JJ body_NN1 becomes_VVZ not_XX just_RR the_AT tortured_JJ self_NN1 of_IO her_APPGE personal_JJ biography_NN1 but_CCB a_AT1 visual_JJ counterpart_NN1 to_II the_AT injured_JJ and_CC defiled_VVD manifestations_NN2 of_IO Mexico_NP1 's_GE colonised_JJ past_NN1 :_: La_NP1 Llorona_NP1 '_GE the_AT weeping_JJ woman_NN1 '_GE of_IO popular_JJ myth_NN1 and_CC La_NP1 Chingada_NP1 ,_, the_AT raped_JJ and_CC abused_JJ mother_NN1 described_VVN in_II Paz_NP1 's_GE The_AT Labyrinth_NN1 of_IO Solitude_NN1 ._. 
Descended_VVN from_II an_AT1 Aztec_JJ mother_NN1 goddess_NN1 ,_, Llorona_NP1 is_VBZ a_AT1 long-suffering_JJ mother_NN1 figure_NN1 ,_, symbolic_JJ in_II a_AT1 wider_JJR sense_NN1 of_IO the_AT trauma_NN1 of_IO the_AT Spanish_JJ invasion_NN1 ._. 
Driven_JJ mad_JJ with_IW grief_NN1 by_II the_AT loss_NN1 of_IO her_APPGE child_NN1 ,_, she_PPHS1 is_VBZ thought_VVN to_TO wander_VVI the_AT streets_NN2 weeping_VVG and_CC crying_VVG out_RP a_AT1 ghostly_JJ memory_NN1 of_IO the_AT pre-Conquest_JJ past_NN1 ._. 
At_II its_APPGE most_RGT simple_JJ ,_, La_NP1 Chingada_NP1 ,_, as_CSA the_AT mother_NN1 of_IO Mestizo_NP1 culture_NN1 is_58 '_GE the_AT Mother_NN1 forcibly_RR opened_VVN ,_, violated_VVN or_CC deceived_JJ '_GE ._. 
The_AT female_JJ soil_NN1 possessed_VVN and_CC misused_VVN by_II the_AT masculine_JJ force_NN1 of_IO the_AT Spanish_JJ invaders_NN2 ._. 
The_AT Indian_JJ Mexico_NP1 raped_VVD and_CC abused_VVN by_II the_AT conquistador_NN1 yet_RR bearing_VVG his_APPGE bastard_NN1 child_NN1 ._. 
The_AT rhetoric_NN1 of_IO the_AT Tehuana_NP1 opposes_VVZ the_AT nihilism_NN1 of_IO traditional_JJ feminisations_NN2 of_IO colonial_JJ trauma_NN1 ,_, and_CC asserts_VVZ the_AT potential_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 dignified_JJ cultural_JJ resistance_NN1 ._. 
Fig_NN1 9_MC ._. 
Frida_NP1 Kahlo_NP1 :_: The_AT Suicide_NN1 of_IO Dorothy_NP1 Hale_NP1 ,_, 1939_MC ,_, 58.1x47.5_FO cm_NNU ._. 
Phoenix_NP1 Art_NN1 Museum_NN1 ,_, Arizona_NP1 ._. 
A_AT1 major_JJ ,_, though_CS often_RR ignored_VVN ,_, work_VV0 by_II Kahlo_NP1 demonstrates_VVZ the_AT cultural_JJ politics_NN1 underlying_VVG her_APPGE art_NN1 ._. 
My_APPGE Dress_NN1 Hangs_VVZ There_RL (_( 1939_MC )_) (_( Fig._NN1 10_MC )_) is_VBZ one_MC1 of_IO the_AT artist_NN1 '_GE s_ZZ1 most_RGT formally_RR adventurous_JJ works_NN ,_, mixing_VVG photographic_JJ collage_NN1 with_IW paint_NN1 to_TO produce_VVI a_AT1 critique_NN1 of_IO North_NP1 American_JJ culture_NN1 ._. 
Kahlo_NP1 does_VDZ not_XX appear_VVI in_II the_AT work_NN1 ,_, her_APPGE Tehuana_NN1 costume_NN1 hangs_VVZ empty_JJ in_II the_AT centre_NN1 of_IO the_AT composition_NN1 ,_, suspended_VVN between_II a_AT1 toilet_NN1 bowl_NN1 and_CC a_AT1 golfing_NN1 trophy_NN1 ._. 
On_II one_MC1 level_NN1 My_APPGE Dress_NN1 ..._... is_VBZ a_AT1 coda_NN1 to_II Self-Portrait_NP1 on_II the_AT Borderline_NN1 (_( 1932_MC )_) (_( Fig._NN1 11_MC )_) of_IO the_AT previous_JJ year_NNT1 ._. 
This_DD1 small_JJ painting_NN1 on_II metal_NN1 ,_, in_II the_AT style_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 Catholic_JJ votive_JJ image_NN1 ,_, shows_VVZ the_AT artist_NN1 poised_VVN between_II the_AT technological_JJ inhumanity_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 capitalist_JJ North_ND1 America_NP1 and_CC the_AT archaic_JJ fertility_NN1 of_IO Mexico_NP1 ._. 
Interwoven_VVN with_IW these_DD2 images_NN2 are_VBR subtler_JJR references_NN2 to_II the_AT metaphorical_JJ borderlines_NN2 which_DDQ separate_VV0 Latin_JJ American_JJ culture_NN1 from_II that_DD1 of_IO Europe_NP1 and_CC North_ND1 America_NP1 ._. 
This_DD1 is_VBZ done_VDN by_II a_AT1 series_NN of_IO juxtapositions_NN2 ;_; the_AT past_NN1 versus_II the_AT present_NN1 ;_; female_JJ nature_NN1 versus_II masculine_JJ technology_NN1 ;_; growth_NN1 versus_II exploitation_NN1 ;_; and_CC in_II its_APPGE very_RG material_JJ presence_NN1 ,_, the_AT traditions_NN2 of_IO fine_JJ art_NN1 versus_II the_AT popular_JJ ._. 
At_II the_AT same_DA time_NNT1 the_AT ambivalence_NN1 of_IO her_APPGE own_DA ,_, and_CC modern_JJ Mexico_NP1 's_GE position_NN1 is_VBZ manifested_VVN in_II the_AT figure_NN1 of_IO the_AT artist_NN1 ._. 
The_AT paper_NN1 flag_NN1 of_IO her_APPGE homeland_NN1 is_VBZ contrasted_VVN to_II the_AT modernity_NN1 of_IO the_AT cigarette_NN1 held_VVN in_II her_APPGE other_JJ hand_NN1 ._. 
The_AT red_NN1 and_CC green_NN1 of_IO the_AT Aztec_JJ necklace_NN1 links_VVZ it_PPH1 compositionally_RR with_IW the_AT indigenous_JJ plants_NN2 to_II the_AT '_GE south_ND1 '_" of_IO the_AT painting_NN1 ,_, the_AT pink_JJ colonial-style_JJ dress_NN1 tonally_RR blending_VVG with_IW the_AT skyscrapers_NN2 to_II the_AT '_GE north_ND1 '_GE ._. 
My_APPGE Dress_NN1 ..._... again_RT suggests_VVZ a_AT1 conflict_NN1 ,_, but_CCB the_AT ambivalence_NN1 is_VBZ gone_VVN ._. 
Nature_NN1 has_VHZ been_VBN banished_VVN ,_, technology_NN1 and_CC its_APPGE concomitant_JJ values_NN2 reign_VV0 over_RP a_AT1 harshly_RR masculine_JJ world_NN1 ._. 
Three_MC elements_NN2 refer_VV0 to_II the_AT female_JJ presence_NN1 ,_, all_DB of_IO them_PPHO2 dealing_VVG with_IW an_AT1 essential_JJ lack_NN1 ._. 
The_AT empty_JJ dress_NN1 ,_, a_AT1 peeling_NN1 poster_NN1 of_IO Mae_NP1 West_ND1 and_CC in_II the_AT far_JJ distance_NN1 the_AT Statue_NN1 of_IO Liberty_NN1 ._. 
Fig._NN1 10_MC ._. 
Frida_NP1 Kahlo_NP1 :_: My_APPGE Dress_NN1 Hangs_VVZ There_RL ,_, 1933_MC ,_, 46x50_FO cm_NNU ,_, estate_NN1 of_IO dr_NNU ._. 
Leo_NP1 Eloesser_NP1 ._. 
Although_CS occasionally_RR humorous_JJ ,_, the_AT work_NN1 presents_VVZ a_AT1 bleak_JJ view_NN1 of_IO urban_JJ alienation_NN1 ._. 
The_AT Church_NN1 ,_, Wall_NP1 Street_NNL1 ,_, and_CC Industry_NN1 are_VBR joined_VVN by_II a_AT1 network_NN1 of_IO telephone_NN1 lines_NN2 ,_, forming_VVG a_AT1 remorsely_RR inhuman_JJ environment_NN1 ._. 
Beneath_II this_DD1 man-made_JJ mechanism_NN1 of_IO oppression_NN1 are_VBR the_AT people_NN ,_, literally_RR distanced_VVN from_II their_APPGE surroundings_NN2 by_II Kahlo_NP1 's_GE use_NN1 of_IO photo-collage_NN1 ._. 
In_II the_AT forefront_NN1 of_IO this_DD1 scene_NN1 flutters_VVZ the_AT dress_NN1 ,_, incongruously_RR vibrant_JJ despite_II its_APPGE suggestion_NN1 of_IO loss_NN1 ._. 
Dislocated_VVD from_II its_APPGE political_JJ context_NN1 ,_, it_PPH1 hangs_VVZ like_II a_AT1 piata_NN1 above_II the_AT teeming_JJ streets_NN2 of_IO the_AT city_NN1 ;_; decorative_JJ yet_RR potentially_RR explosive_JJ ._. 
There_EX is_VBZ no_AT place_NN1 '_GE there_RL '_VBZ for_IF the_AT values_NN2 the_AT Tehuana_NP1 dress_NN1 represents_VVZ ,_, its_APPGE folds_NN2 are_VBR given_VVN meaning_VVG by_II Kahlo_NP1 's_GE search_NN1 for_IF a_AT1 cultural_JJ identity_NN1 ._. 
Within_II the_AT confines_NN2 of_IO the_AT painting_NN1 it_PPH1 becomes_VVZ a_AT1 silent_JJ emblem_NN1 of_IO protest_NN1 ,_, a_AT1 reminder_NN1 of_IO political_JJ alternatives_NN2 ._. 
The_AT physicality_NN1 so_RG characteristic_JJ of_IO Kahlo_NP1 's_GE work_NN1 is_VBZ missing_JJ ,_, no_AT flesh_NN1 ,_, no_AT blood_NN1 ,_, just_RR the_AT tawdriness_NN1 of_IO the_AT peeling_NN1 poster_NN1 and_CC the_AT hollow_JJ reminder_NN1 of_IO lost_JJ Liberty_NN1 ._. 
The_AT inter-relationship_NN1 of_IO body_NN1 and_CC dress_VV0 so_RG self-consciously_RR referred_VVN to_II in_II many_DA2 of_IO Kahlo_NP1 's_GE most_RGT polemical_JJ works_NN (_( Fig._NN1 12_MC )_) has_VHZ been_VBN strangely_RR inverted_JJ by_II her_APPGE current_JJ popularity_NN1 ._. 
Her_APPGE '_GE Mexicanness_NP1 '_GE has_VHZ become_VVN a_AT1 stylistic_JJ gloss_NN1 ,_, decorative_JJ ,_, colourful_JJ ,_, pretty_JJ ,_, even_RR individualistic_JJ ._. 
The_AT colonised_JJ body_NN1 which_DDQ Kahlo_NP1 clothed_VVN in_II revolutionary_JJ idealism_NN1 has_VHZ lost_VVN its_APPGE function_NN1 as_II a_AT1 symbol_NN1 of_IO nationhood_NN1 becoming_VVG instead_RR an_AT1 icon_NN1 of_IO female_JJ suffering_NN1 ._. 
What_DDQ is_VBZ obscured_VVN by_II this_DD1 process_NN1 is_VBZ that_CST it_PPH1 was_VBDZ through_II clothing_NN1 ,_, in_II both_RR art_NN1 and_CC life_NN1 ,_, that_CST Kahlo_NP1 attempted_VVD to_TO redress_VVI the_AT wrongs_NN2 of_IO history_NN1 ._. 
Fig._NN1 11_MC ._. 
Frida_NP1 Kahlo_NP1 :_: Self-Portrait_NP1 on_II the_AT Border_NN1 ,_, 1932_MC ,_, 33x45.8_FO cm_NNU ._. 
Coll_NP1 ._. 
Mr_NNB &amp;_CC Mrs_NNB Manuel_NP1 Reyero_NP1 ._. 
Fig._NN1 12_MC ._. 
Frida_NP1 Kahlo_NP1 :_: The_AT Two_MC Fridas_NP2 ,_, 1939_MC ,_, 173.5x173_FO cm_NNU ._. 
Museo_NN1 de_NP1 Arte_NP1 Moderno_NP1 ,_, Mexico_NP1 D.F._NP1 SURREALISING_VVG THE_AT BAROQUE_NN1 :_: MEXICO_NP1 'S_GE SPANISH_JJ HERITAGE_NN1 AND_CC THE_AT WORK_NN1 OF_IO ALBERTO_NP1 GIRONELLA_NP1 Valerie_NP1 Fraser_NP1 It_PPH1 is_VBZ a_AT1 truism_NN1 to_TO say_VVI that_CST that_DD1 which_DDQ can_VM not_XX be_VBI readily_RR classified_VVN will_VM tend_VVI to_TO be_VBI overlooked_VVN ._. 
In_II Art_NN1 History_NN1 the_AT rehabilitation_NN1 of_IO artists_NN2 and_CC bodies_NN2 of_IO work_NN1 which_DDQ have_VH0 been_VBN overlooked_VVN has_VHZ been_VBN going_VVG on_RP since_CS Vasari_NP1 made_VVD such_DA a_AT1 good_JJ job_NN1 of_IO classifying_VVG Florentine_JJ art_NN1 that_CST all_DB other_JJ art_NN1 in_II Italy_NP1 and_CC beyond_RL has_VHZ had_VHN to_TO be_VBI defined_VVN ,_, at_RR21 least_RR22 until_CS this_DD1 century_NNT1 ,_, and_CC at_II some_DD level_NN1 even_RR now_RT ,_, in_II31 relation_II32 to_II33 Vasari_NP1 's_GE classifications_NN2 ,_, or_CC at_RR21 least_RR22 in_II31 relation_II32 to_II33 the_AT model_NN1 of_IO stylistic_JJ evolution_NN1 which_DDQ he_PPHS1 outlined_VVD ._. 
Non-Italian_JJ artists_NN2 ,_, non-Italian_JJ preoccupations_NN2 ,_, women_NN2 artists_NN2 ,_, artists_NN2 working_VVG in_II media_NN other_II21 than_II22 Vasari_NP1 's_GE chosen_JJ painting_NN1 ,_, sculpture_NN1 and_CC architecture_NN1 ,_, non-Western_JJ art_NN1 and_RR31 so_RR32 on_RR33 :_: critics_NN2 have_VH0 been_VBN busy_JJ reviewing_VVG such_DA areas_NN2 and_CC ,_, in_II so_RR doing_VDG ,_, producing_VVG new_JJ categories_NN2 and_CC classifications_NN2 ._. 
Latin_JJ American_JJ art_NN1 has_VHZ been_VBN undergoing_VVG such_DA a_AT1 review_NN1 both_RR from_II within_II Latin_JJ America_NP1 itself_PPX1 and_CC from_II elsewhere_RL ,_, with_IW several_DA2 exhibitions_NN2 and_CC books_NN2 on_II the_AT subject_NN1 in_II the_AT last_MD few_DA2 years_NNT2 in_II Europe_NP1 and_CC the_AT US_NP1 ._. 
That_CST there_EX should_VM be_VBI an_AT1 issue_NN1 of_IO the_AT Oxford_NP1 Art_NN1 Journal_NN1 devoted_VVD to_II Latin_JJ American_JJ art_NN1 is_VBZ itself_PPX1 testimony_NN1 to_II the_AT success_NN1 of_IO such_DA efforts_NN2 ._. 
But_CCB new_JJ categories_NN2 can_VM in_II turn_VVI prove_VV0 to_TO be_VBI exclusive_JJ ._. 
Within_II the_AT field_NN1 of_IO Latin_JJ American_JJ art_NN1 as_II a_AT1 whole_NN1 there_EX are_VBR still_RR many_DA2 individual_JJ artists_NN2 who_PNQS have_VH0 not_XX received_VVN the_AT attention_NN1 they_PPHS2 deserve_VV0 because_CS their_APPGE work_NN1 does_VDZ not_XX seem_VVI to_TO fit_VVI into_II any_DD larger_JJR pattern_NN1 ._. 
In_II the_AT case_NN1 of_IO the_AT work_NN1 of_IO the_AT Mexican_JJ Alberto_NP1 Gironella_NP1 ,_, the_AT reason_NN1 would_VM seem_VVI to_TO be_VBI precisely_RR because_II21 of_II22 his_APPGE insistent_JJ concentration_NN1 on_II art_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 very_RG different_JJ category_NN1 that_DD1 of_IO Spain_NP1 during_II the_AT seventeenth_MD and_CC eighteenth_MD centuries_NNT2 ,_, particularly_RR court_NN1 portraiture_NN1 ._. 
Among_II the_AT more_RGR comprehensive_JJ books_NN2 on_II twentieth-century_JJ Mexican_JJ art_NN1 in_II recent_JJ years_NNT2 ,_, Shifra_NP1 Goldman_NP1 only_RR mentions_VVZ him_PPHO1 in_II passing_NN1 ,_, Luis_NP1 Cardoza_NP1 y_ZZ1 Aragn_NP1 says_VVZ little_DA1 more_DAR than_CSN that_CST Gironella_NP1 '_GE escapes_VVZ him_PPHO1 '_GE ,_, and_CC Ida_NP1 Rodriguez_NP1 Prampolini_NP1 dismisses_VVZ him_PPHO1 from_II her_APPGE discussion_NN1 of_IO Mexican_JJ surrealism_NN1 as_II an_AT1 '_GE international_JJ '_GE artist_NN1 ,_, more_RGR closely_RR related_VVN to_II Spain_NP1 than_CSN to_II Mexico_NP1 ._. 
When_CS he_PPHS1 has_VHZ inspired_VVN sympathetic_JJ coverage_NN1 ,_, the_AT results_NN2 tend_VV0 to_TO be_VBI not_XX so_RG much_RR an_AT1 exposition_NN1 of_IO Gironella_NP1 's_GE achievements_NN2 but_CCB belong_VV0 to_II that_DD1 particular_JJ branch_NN1 of_IO literature_NN1 which_DDQ uses_VVZ works_NN of_IO art_NN1 as_II a_AT1 starting_NN1 point_NN1 for_IF literary_JJ excursus_NN1 ._. 
Octavio_NP1 Paz_NP1 's_GE elegant_JJ essay_NN1 is_VBZ the_AT prime_JJ example_NN1 ,_, where_CS despite_II some_DD insightful_JJ remarks_NN2 he_PPHS1 uses_VVZ Gironella_NP1 's_GE work_NN1 to_TO make_VVI general_JJ observations_NN2 about_II the_AT creative_JJ role_NN1 of_IO the_AT critic_NN1 ,_, for_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, or_CC for_IF digressive_JJ flourishes_NN2 on_II Spanish_JJ culture_NN1 ._. 
When_CS they_PPHS2 met_VVD in_II Paris_NP1 in_II 1963_MC ,_, Breton_NP1 hailed_VVD him_PPHO1 as_II a_AT1 surrealist_JJ ,_, but_CCB in_II a_AT1 recent_JJ interview_NN1 Gironella_NP1 disclaimed_VVD so_RR tidy_VV0 a_AT1 classification_NN1 ,_, saying_VVG he_PPHS1 is_VBZ as_RG much_RR a_AT1 baroque_NN1 artist_NN1 as_CSA a_AT1 surrealist_JJ ._. 
In_II fact_NN1 ,_, although_CS there_EX are_VBR both_RR surreal_JJ and_CC baroque_NN1 elements_NN2 in_II his_APPGE work_NN1 ,_, Gironella_NP1 prefers_VVZ to_TO call_VVI it_PPH1 mestizo_NN1 '_GE ,_, a_AT1 term_NN1 which_DDQ has_VHZ often_RR had_VHN negative_JJ ,_, racist_JJ overtones_NN2 but_CCB which_DDQ has_VHZ been_VBN acclaimed_VVN in_II this_DD1 century_NNT1 ,_, especially_RR in_II Mexico_NP1 ,_, as_CSA a_AT1 positive_JJ value_NN1 ,_, indeed_RR the_AT distinguishing_JJ feature_NN1 of_IO Mexican_JJ culture_NN1 :_: the_AT rich_JJ and_CC fruitful_JJ mixture_NN1 of_IO the_AT European_NN1 with_IW the_AT indigenous_JJ American_JJ ._. 
This_DD1 rather_RG simple_JJ notion_NN1 ,_, that_CST there_EX is_VBZ one_MC1 single_JJ Mexican_JJ culture_NN1 ,_, problematic_JJ principally_RR because_CS it_PPH1 tends_VVZ to_TO valorize_VVI the_AT European_NN1 over_II the_AT indigenous_JJ and_CC to_TO ignore_VVI the_AT diversity_NN1 ,_, and_CC richness_NN1 of_IO the_AT latter_DA ,_, but_CCB also_RR ,_, conversely_RR ,_, because_CS it_PPH1 excludes_VVZ or_CC denigrates_VVZ the_AT more_RGR purely_RR European_JJ aspects_NN2 of_IO the_AT culture_NN1 ._. 
Nevertheless_RR it_PPH1 seems_VVZ to_II me_PPIO1 that_CST Gironella_NP1 is_VBZ right_JJ ,_, or_CC that_CST he_PPHS1 is_VBZ right_RR in_CS41 so_CS42 far_CS43 as_CS44 he_PPHS1 is_VBZ using_VVG '_GE mestizo_NN1 '_GE to_TO claim_VVI for_IF his_APPGE work_NN1 a_AT1 Mexican_JJ ,_, not_XX a_AT1 European_JJ identity_NN1 ._. 
He_PPHS1 is_VBZ probably_RR also_RR right_RR when_CS he_PPHS1 says_VVZ that_CST he_PPHS1 is_VBZ only_RR seen_VVN as_II a_AT1 Spanish_JJ artist_NN1 because_CS his_APPGE interest_NN1 lies_VVZ in_II Spanish_JJ art_NN1 ,_, instead_CS21 of_CS22 in_II French_JJ art_NN1 '_GE like_JJ everyone_PN1 else'_JJ :_: in_II other_JJ words_NN2 ,_, within_II the_AT accepted_JJ categories_NN2 there_EX is_VBZ no_AT room_NN1 for_IF a_AT1 Mexican_NN1 who_PNQS is_VBZ interested_JJ in_II Spanish_JJ art_NN1 ._. 
'_" My_APPGE purpose_NN1 in_II what_DDQ follows_VVZ is_VBZ to_TO try_VVI to_TO place_VVI him_PPHO1 within_II a_AT1 Mexican_JJ context_NN1 ._. 
Gironella_NP1 's_GE subject_NN1 matter_NN1 is_VBZ the_AT acclaimed_JJ artistic_JJ masterpieces_NN2 of_IO the_AT Spanish_JJ past_NN1 which_DDQ he_PPHS1 reworks_VVZ in_II various_JJ ways_NN2 ,_, most_RGT dramatically_RR into_II ironic_JJ altars_NN2 assembled_VVN from_II a_AT1 variety_NN1 of_IO painted_JJ ,_, sculpted_JJ and_CC ready-made_JJ elements_NN2 (_( Fig._NN1 1_MC1 )_) ._. 
Favoured_JJ subjects_NN2 are_VBR court_NN1 portraiture_NN1 ,_, and_CC allegorical_JJ images_NN2 of_IO death_NN1 ,_, decay_NN1 and_CC the_AT transience_NN1 of_IO life_NN1 ,_, usually_RR handled_VVN with_IW the_AT blackest_JJT of_IO black_JJ humour_NN1 ._. 
Favoured_JJ artists_NN2 are_VBR Goya_NP1 and_CC his_APPGE predecessors_NN2 in_II the_AT Golden_JJ Age_NN1 El_NP1 Greco_NP1 ,_, Pereda_NP1 ,_, Valds_NP1 Leal_NP1 and_CC above_II all_DB Velzquez_NP1 ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ worth_II emphasising_VVG that_CST the_AT period_NN1 spanned_VVD by_II the_AT lives_NN2 of_IO El_NP1 Greco_NP1 and_CC Velzquez_NP1 saw_VVD in_II Latin_JJ America_NP1 the_AT consolidation_NN1 of_IO colonial_JJ government_NN1 and_CC of_IO the_AT Christian_JJ church_NN1 ,_, the_AT establishment_NN1 of_IO the_AT Spanish_JJ language_NN1 and_CC of_IO European_JJ culture_NN1 ,_, the_AT introduction_NN1 of_IO new_JJ methods_NN2 of_IO exploitation_NN1 of_IO people_NN and_CC resources_NN2 ._. 
Goya_NP1 's_GE life_NN1 ,_, on_II the_AT other_JJ hand_NN1 ,_, coincides_VVZ with_IW the_AT decline_NN1 and_CC ultimate_JJ collapse_NN1 of_IO the_AT Empire_NN1 ;_; Spanish_JJ rule_NN1 in_II America_NP1 had_VHD been_VBN overthrown_VVN by_II the_AT time_NNT1 of_IO his_APPGE death_NN1 in_II 1828_MC ._. 
In_II other_JJ words_NN2 ,_, these_DD2 artists_NN2 lived_VVN during_II Latin_JJ American_NN1 's_GE formative_JJ years._NNU the_AT work_NN1 of_IO the_AT artists_NN2 who_PNQS interpreted_VVD their_APPGE historical_JJ reality_NN1 on_II21 to_II22 canvas_NN1 ,_, but_CCB the_AT importance_NN1 in_II Latin_JJ America_NP1 of_IO the_AT art_NN1 itself_PPX1 should_VM not_XX be_VBI underestimated_VVN ,_, particularly_RR the_AT iconography_NN1 of_IO the_AT monarchy_NN1 ._. 
Velzquez_NP1 's_GE name_NN1 ,_, for_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, would_VM have_VHI been_VBN familiar_JJ to_II very_RG few_DA2 Mexicans_NN2 in_II the_AT seventeenth_MD century_NNT1 ,_, but_CCB as_CSA the_AT only_JJ artist_NN1 authorised_VVN to_TO execute_VVI likenesses_NN2 of_IO the_AT King_NN1 his_APPGE official_JJ portraits_NN2 of_IO Philip_NP1 IV_MC and_CC the_AT innumerable_JJ engravings_NN2 after_II them_PPHO2 would_VM have_VHI been_VBN well_RR known_VVN ._. 
A_AT1 painting_NN1 by_II his_APPGE contemporary_JJ ,_, Juan_NP1 Bautista_NP1 Maino_NP1 ,_, The_AT Recapture_NN1 of_IO Bahia_NP1 ,_, of_IO 1635_MC ,_, represents_VVZ the_AT recapture_NN1 of_IO the_AT harbour_NN1 of_IO Bahia_NP1 in_II Brazil_NP1 (_( then_RT under_II Spanish_JJ control_NN1 )_) from_II the_AT Dutch_JJ in_II 1625_MC ._. 
(_( Fig._NN1 2_MC )_) While_CS an_AT1 injured_JJ man_NN1 is_VBZ tended_VVN in_II the_AT foreground_NN1 ,_, the_AT Dutch_JJ forces_NN2 to_II the_AT right_NN1 kneel_VV0 in_II homage_NN1 before_II an_AT1 allegorical_JJ tapestried_JJ portrait_NN1 of_IO Philip_NP1 IV_MC ._. 
This_DD1 is_VBZ a_AT1 highly_RR unusual_JJ painting_NN1 in_II a_AT1 number_NN1 of_IO ways_NN2 ,_, not_XX least_RRT because_CS no_AT such_DA royal_JJ portrait_NN1 could_VM ever_RR have_VHI existed_VVN ,_, including_VVG as_CSA it_PPH1 does_VDZ ,_, and_CC on_II almost_RR equal_JJ status_NN1 with_IW the_AT king_NN1 ,_, the_AT figure_NN1 of_IO his_APPGE ambitious_JJ minister_NN1 the_AT Count-Duke_NP1 of_IO Olivares_NN2 ._. 
Nevertheless_RR ,_, on_II special_JJ occasions_NN2 the_AT Spanish_JJ authorities_NN2 in_II America_NP1 would_VM certainly_RR have_VHI erected_VVN large_JJ representations_NN2 of_IO the_AT king_NN1 in_II this_DD1 manner_NN1 ,_, as_CSA objects_NN2 of_IO semi-religious_JJ devotion_NN1 ._. 
On_II the_AT death_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 member_NN1 of_IO the_AT royal_JJ family_NN1 elaborate_JJ catafalques_NN2 were_VBDR constructed_VVN in_II cathedrals_NN2 throughout_II the_AT Empire_NN1 and_CC the_AT deceased_NN1 mourned_VVN in_II effigy_NN1 ._. 
Paintings_NN2 and_CC prints_NN2 were_VBDR distributed_VVN to_II colonial_JJ officials_NN2 for_IF display_NN1 in_II much_RR the_AT same_DA way_NN1 as_CSA British_JJ embassies_NN2 are_VBR provided_VVN with_IW an_AT1 official_JJ photographic_JJ portrait_NN1 of_IO the_AT Queen_NN1 ._. 
In_II other_JJ words_NN2 ,_, the_AT focus_NN1 of_IO Gironella_NP1 's_GE attention_NN1 is_VBZ neither_RR historically_RR nor_CC iconographically_RR arbitrary_JJ ,_, although_CS in_II some_DD ways_NN2 his_APPGE reworkings_NN2 of_IO the_AT paintings_NN2 of_IO others_NN2 could_VM be_VBI seen_VVN to_TO be_VBI simply_RR an_AT1 extension_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 fairly_RR conventional_JJ activity_NN1 ._. 
Within_II the_AT Western_JJ tradition_NN1 of_IO art_NN1 we_PPIS2 tend_VV0 to_TO take_VVI it_PPH1 for_IF granted_VVN that_RG much_DA1 can_VM be_VBI learned_VVN from_II the_AT study_NN1 of_IO the_AT art_NN1 of_IO the_AT past_NN1 and_CC ,_, traditionally_RR ,_, copying_VVG from_II the_AT works_NN of_IO the_AT Great_JJ Masters_NN2 was_VBDZ one_MC1 of_IO a_AT1 young_JJ student_NN1 's_GE most_RGT important_JJ tasks_NN2 ._. 
This_DD1 activity_NN1 ,_, this_DD1 dependence_NN1 on_II the_AT art_NN1 of_IO the_AT past_NN1 ,_, is_VBZ not_XX ,_, in_II itself_PPX1 ,_, ideologically_RR highly-charged_JJ ._. 
Reynolds_NP1 may_VM have_VHI admired_VVN and_CC borrowed_VVN from_II Michelangelo_NP1 ,_, and_CC while_CS this_DD1 could_VM be_VBI said_VVN to_TO represent_VVI ,_, perhaps_RR ,_, a_AT1 long-standing_JJ tradition_NN1 of_IO cultural_JJ domination_NN1 or_CC the_AT domination_NN1 in_II England_NP1 of_IO the_AT Italianate_JJ tastes_NN2 of_IO the_AT English_JJ upper_JJ classes_NN2 it_PPH1 would_VM be_VBI a_AT1 mistake_NN1 to_TO make_VVI too_RG much_DA1 of_IO this_DD1 ._. 
In_II the_AT case_NN1 of_IO Latin_JJ America_NP1 it_PPH1 is_VBZ more_RGR complex_JJ ._. 
Historically_RR the_AT relationship_NN1 between_II Latin_JJ America_NP1 and_CC Europe_NP1 is_VBZ not_XX only_RR one_MC1 of_IO cultural_JJ domination_NN1 of_IO the_AT former_DA by_II the_AT latter_DA ,_, but_CCB of_IO political_JJ and_CC economic_JJ domination_NN1 ._. 
While_CS the_AT obvious_JJ colonial_JJ ties_NN2 have_VH0 been_VBN broken_VVN ,_, the_AT power_NN1 still_RR lies_VVZ elsewhere_RL ._. 
The_AT sources_NN2 of_IO domination_NN1 have_VH0 in_II some_DD ways_NN2 simply_RR broadened_VVN to_TO include_VVI the_AT US_NP1 ,_, japan_NN1 ,_, and_CC international_JJ capitalism_NN1 ._. 
Within_II the_AT art_NN1 world_NN1 the_AT problem_NN1 remains_VVZ that_CST the_AT production_NN1 of_IO art_NN1 in_II Latin_JJ America_NP1 ,_, from_II a_AT1 student_NN1 's_GE training_NN1 to_II the_AT art_NN1 market_NN1 ,_, is_VBZ rooted_VVN firmly_RR in_II the_AT European_JJ tradition_NN1 ,_, while_CS to_TO compound_VVI the_AT difficulties_NN2 ,_, few_DA2 Latin_JJ American_JJ museums_NN2 can_VM boast_VVI any_DD examples_NN2 of_IO European_NN1 ,_, North_NP1 American_JJ or_CC even_RR non-national_JJ art_NN1 at_RR21 all_RR22 ._. 
Everything_PN1 conspires_VVZ to_TO exacerbate_VVI the_AT situation_NN1 :_: conventional_JJ art_NN1 education_NN1 teaches_VVZ an_AT1 art-historical_JJ line_NN1 of_IO descent_NN1 through_II the_AT successive_JJ achievements_NN2 of_IO the_AT Great_JJ Masters_NN2 ,_, but_CCB such_DA works_NN are_VBR unavailable_JJ in_II Latin_JJ America_NP1 except_CS in_II the_AT form_NN1 of_IO often_RR poor-quality_JJ reproductions_NN2 ._. 
In_II this_DD1 sense_NN1 things_NN2 have_VH0 not_XX changed_VVN much_RR since_CS the_AT seventeenth_MD century_NNT1 ._. 
Gironella_NN1 always_RR seems_VVZ acutely_RR aware_JJ of_IO these_DD2 issues_NN2 ._. 
For_IF him_PPHO1 the_AT reworking_NN1 of_IO familiar_JJ images_NN2 is_VBZ not_XX simply_RR a_AT1 matter_NN1 of_IO drawing_VVG attention_NN1 to_II the_AT way_NN1 in_II which_DDQ mass-reproduction_NN1 numbs_VVZ the_AT optic_NN1 nerves_NN2 ,_, by_II shocking_VVG the_AT spectator_NN1 with_IW a_AT1 moustached_JJ Mona_NP1 Lisa_NP1 ,_, but_CCB rather_RR ,_, using_VVG a_AT1 peculiar_JJ blend_NN1 of_IO both_DB2 iconoclasm_NN1 and_CC a_AT1 sort_NN1 of_IO wry_JJ homage_NN1 ,_, of_IO investigating_VVG the_AT power_NN1 of_IO certain_JJ images_NN2 ,_, particularly_RR those_DD2 which_DDQ have_VH0 national_JJ resonance_NN1 ._. 
In_II this_DD1 sense_NN1 his_APPGE Habsburg_NP1 and_CC Bourbon_NN1 portraits_NN2 are_VBR not_XX dissimilar_JJ to_II Jasper_NP1 Johns_NP1 '_GE American_JJ flag_NN1 series_NN ,_, except_CS of_RR21 course_RR22 that_CST the_AT flag_NN1 ,_, whatever_DDQV individuals_NN2 may_VM think_VVI of_IO it_PPH1 ,_, is_VBZ unquestionably_RR American_JJ ,_, the_AT lineage_NN1 is_VBZ clear_JJ ._. 
The_AT connecting_JJ threads_NN2 between_II the_AT Spanish_JJ monarchy_NN1 and_CC colonial_JJ Mexico_NP1 ,_, between_II Spanish_JJ artists_NN2 and_CC Mexican_JJ ,_, between_II past_RL and_CC present_NN1 ,_, are_VBR tangled_JJ or_CC broken_JJ ._. 
Within_II Spanish_JJ art_NN1 itself_PPX1 ,_, on_II the_AT other_JJ hand_NN1 ,_, the_AT line_NN1 is_VBZ almost_RR too_RG simple_JJ :_: Goya_NP1 was_VBDZ intensely_RR aware_JJ of_IO Velzquez_NP1 ,_, Picasso_NP1 of_IO both_DB2 ,_, but_II21 for_II22 Gironella_NP1 the_AT problem_NN1 is_VBZ not_XX just_RR that_CST Picasso_NP1 could_VM be_VBI seen_VVN to_TO have_VHI inserted_VVN himself_PPX1 into_II the_AT next_MD place_NN1 in_II the_AT sequence_NN1 but_CCB that_DD1 as_II a_AT1 Mexican_JJ an_AT1 unequivocal_JJ position_NN1 in_II any_DD such_DA art-historical_JJ lineage_NN1 is_VBZ utterly_RR unattainable_JJ ._. 
Fig._NN1 1_MC1 ._. 
Alberto_NP1 Gironella_NP1 ,_, Lot_NN1 y_ZZ1 sus_NN1 hijas_NN2 (_( Lot_NN1 and_CC his_APPGE Daughters_NN2 )_) ,_, 1984-1987_MCMC ;_; retable_JJ ,_, 303_MC x_ZZ1 241.5_MC x_ZZ1 30_MC cms_NNU2 ,_, collection_NN1 of_IO the_AT artist_NN1 ._. 
Photograph_NN1 :_: Jorge_NP1 Pablo_NP1 de_NP1 Aguinaco_NP1 ,_, courtesy_NN1 Galeria_NP1 OMR_NP1 ,_, Mexico_NP1 ._. 
Gironella_NN1 was_VBDZ born_VVN in_II Mexico_NP1 City_NN1 in_II 1929_MC ._. 
His_PPGE rather_RR was_VBDZ Catalan_JJ ;_; he_PPHS1 had_VHD come_VVN to_II Mexico_NP1 as_II a_AT1 young_JJ man_NN1 and_CC worked_VVD in_II his_APPGE brother-in-law_NN1 's_GE grocery_NN1 shop_NN1 ._. 
He_PPHS1 later_RRR set_VVD up_RP his_APPGE own_DA business_NN1 importing_VVG groceries_NN2 from_II Europe_NP1 ,_, particularly_RR from_II Spain_NP1 ._. 
His_APPGE mother_NN1 was_VBDZ Yucatecan_JJ ,_, a_AT1 mestiza_NN1 from_II Mrida_NP1 ,_, but_CCB she_PPHS1 was_58 '_GE catalanised_JJ '_GE ,_, as_CSA Gironella_NP1 put_VVD it_PPH1 ,_, by_II his_APPGE father_NN1 and_CC grandmother_NN1 ;_; in_II other_JJ words_NN2 a_AT1 jointly_RR Eurocentric_JJ upbringing_NN1 ,_, but_CCB ,_, perhaps_RR significantly_RR ,_, without_IW personal_JJ contact_NN1 with_IW Europe_NP1 until_CS his_APPGE first_MD visit_NN1 to_II Paris_NP1 in_II 1960_MC ._. 
He_PPHS1 absorbed_VVD European_JJ culture_NN1 through_II nineteenth-century_JJ French_JJ novels_NN2 ,_, and_CC through_II the_AT literature_NN1 of_IO sixteenth_MD and_CC seventeenth-century_JJ Spain_NP1 ,_, the_AT Spanish_JJ cultural_JJ Golden_JJ Age_NN1 ._. 
His_APPGE major_JJ literary_JJ enterprise_NN1 ,_, as_CSA a_AT1 student_NN1 at_II the_AT Universidad_NP1 Nacional_FW Autnoma_NP1 in_II 1951_MC ,_, was_VBDZ the_AT invention_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 bad_JJ Golden_JJ Age_NN1 poet_NN1 whom_PNQO he_PPHS1 named_VVD Tiburcio_NP1 Esquirla_NP1 ._. 
His_APPGE later_JJR artistic_JJ inventions_NN2 display_VV0 the_AT same_DA fascination_NN1 with_IW the_AT possibilities_NN2 of_IO getting_VVG inside_II the_AT skin_NN1 of_IO another_DD1 era_NN1 ._. 
Through_II his_APPGE efforts_NN2 in_II this_DD1 direction_NN1 he_PPHS1 effectively_RR mocks_VVZ much_RR that_DD1 is_VBZ dear_JJ to_II scholars_NN2 ,_, historians_NN2 ,_, literary_JJ critics_NN2 and_CC art_NN1 historians_NN2 ,_, especially_RR the_AT concept_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 clear_JJ chronological_JJ sequence_NN1 :_: his_APPGE answer_NN1 to_II the_AT problem_NN1 of_IO how_RRQ a_AT1 Mexican_JJ can_NN1 '_GE belong_VV0 '_GE to_II the_AT dynasty_NN1 of_IO European_JJ art_NN1 is_VBZ ,_, as_RR31 it_RR32 were_RR33 ,_, to_TO invade_VVI it_PPH1 retrospectively_RR ._. 
The_AT decisive_JJ move_NN1 from_II literature_NN1 to_II painting_NN1 came_VVD in_II 1952_MC ._. 
Gironella_NN1 seems_VVZ to_TO have_VHI been_VBN very_RG confident_JJ about_II the_AT change_NN1 ,_, as_CSA in_II the_AT same_DA year_NNT1 he_PPHS1 was_VBDZ instrumental_JJ ,_, together_RL with_IW Vlady_NP1 and_CC Hctor_NP1 Xavier_NP1 ,_, in_II establishing_VVG a_AT1 new_JJ art_NN1 gallery_NN1 in_II Mexico_NP1 City_NN1 ,_, the_AT Galeria_NP1 Prisse_FW ._. 
This_DD1 quickly_RR emerged_VVD as_CSA one_MC1 of_IO the_AT most_RGT avant-garde_JJ of_IO the_AT new_JJ Mexican_JJ galleries_NN2 ,_, and_CC the_AT locus_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 group_NN1 of_IO young_JJ artists_NN2 ,_, including_II Jos_NP1 Luis_NP1 Cuevas_NP2 ,_, who_PNQS '_" with_IW no_AT fixed_JJ programme_NN1 and_CC no_AT common_JJ plastic_NN1 language_NN1 ,_, &lsqb;_( ..._... &rsqb;_) were_VBDR united_VVN only_RR by_II the_AT desire_NN1 for_IF change_NN1 '_GE ._. 
Their_APPGE discontent_NN1 at_II this_DD1 time_NNT1 was_VBDZ principally_RR with_IW the_AT social_JJ realism_NN1 of_IO the_AT muralist_NN1 school_NN1 but_CCB ,_, even_RR at_II this_DD1 early_JJ date_NN1 ,_, there_EX was_VBDZ unease_NN1 with_IW the_AT propaganda_NN1 emanating_VVG from_II the_AT US_NP1 that_DD1 Abstract_JJ Expressionism_NN1 was_VBDZ the_AT only_JJ possible_JJ alternative_NN1 ._. 
Gironella_NP1 's_GE solution_NN1 was_VBDZ entirely_RR individual_JJ :_: to_TO focus_VVI on_II the_AT art_NN1 of_IO the_AT European_JJ past_NN1 ,_, looming_VVG large_JJ as_CSA it_PPH1 did_VDD in_II Latin_JJ American_JJ consciousness_NN1 regardless_RR of_IO how_RGQ often_RR it_PPH1 had_VHD been_VBN declared_VVN dead_JJ and_CC buried_VVN by_II Europeans_NN2 ._. 
Fig._NN1 2_MC ._. 
Juan_NP1 Bautista_NP1 de_NP1 Maino_NP1 ,_, The_AT Recapture_NN1 of_IO Bahia_NP1 ,_, 1635_MC ,_, oil_NN1 on_II canvas_NN1 ._. 
Madrid_NP1 ,_, Prado_NP1 ._. 
His_APPGE artistic_JJ career_NN1 began_VVD with_IW a_AT1 series_NN of_IO paintings_NN2 based_VVN on_II the_AT thirteenth-century_JJ sculpture_NN1 of_IO the_AT elegant_JJ countess_NN1 of_IO Uta_NP1 on_II the_AT faade_NN1 of_IO Naumburg_NP1 cathedral_NN1 ,_, a_AT1 photograph_NN1 of_IO which_DDQ had_VHD been_VBN lent_VVN to_II him_PPHO1 by_II the_AT young_JJ artist_NN1 Vlady_NN1 ,_, but_CCB in_II the_AT late_JJ fifties_MC2 he_PPHS1 turned_VVD his_APPGE attention_NN1 to_II Spanish_JJ art_NN1 ._. 
His_APPGE early_JJ choice_NN1 of_IO subject_NN1 set_VVD the_AT tone_NN1 for_IF his_APPGE later_JJR work_NN1 Goya_NP1 's_GE Queen_NNB Maria_NP1 Luisa_NP1 ,_, and_CC Velzquez_NP1 's_GE portrait_NN1 of_IO the_AT dwarf_NN1 Francisco_NP1 Lezcano_NP1 (_( Fig._NN1 3_MC )_) in_II other_JJ words_NN2 ,_, great_JJ Spanish_JJ artists_NN2 '_GE handling_NN1 of_IO their_APPGE arrogant_JJ ,_, ugly_JJ ,_, bizarre_JJ or_CC idiotic_JJ sitters_NN2 ._. 
He_PPHS1 subjected_VVD both_RR to_II repeated_JJ analysis_NN1 ,_, ending_VVG up_RP with_IW a_AT1 version_NN1 of_IO Maria_NP1 Luisa_NP1 in_II which_DDQ she_PPHS1 is_VBZ transformed_VVN into_II a_AT1 sharp-beaked_JJ ,_, staring_VVG owl_NN1 ,_, and_CC of_IO Francisco_NP1 Lezcano_NP1 in_II which_DDQ he_PPHS1 has_VHZ metamorphosed_VVN into_II a_AT1 dog_NN1 ._. 
In_II both_DB2 ,_, Gironella_NP1 is_VBZ exploring_VVG the_AT characters_NN2 of_IO the_AT sitters_NN2 as_CSA suggested_VVN in_II their_APPGE portraits_NN2 rather_II21 than_II22 the_AT formal_JJ ,_, painterly_JJ qualities_NN2 ._. 
Is_VBZ Velzquez_NP1 's_GE Francisco_NP1 Lezcano_NP1 simple-minded_NN1 ,_, or_CC is_VBZ his_APPGE expression_NN1 one_MC1 of_IO aloofness_NN1 and_CC distance_NN1 ?_? 
Gironella_NN1 has_VHZ said_VVN he_PPHS1 was_VBDZ drawn_VVN to_II this_DD1 painting_NN1 because_CS Lezcano_NP1 is_VBZ holding_VVG some_DD playing_VVG cards_NN2 ,_, so_RR his_PPGE disconcertingly_RR direct_JJ gaze_NN1 is_VBZ inviting_VVG us_PPIO2 in_RP to_TO test_VVI our_APPGE wits_NN2 and/or_CC our_APPGE luck_NN1 against_II him_PPHO1 ._. 
Queen_NNB Maria_NP1 Luisa_NP1 ,_, wife_NN1 of_IO Charles_NP1 IV_MC ,_, an_AT1 unlovely_JJ ,_, clever_JJ ,_, deceitful_JJ and_CC immensely_RR powerful_JJ woman_NN1 ,_, is_VBZ metamorphosed_VVN into_II a_AT1 barn-owl_NN1 ,_, a_AT1 lechuza_NN1 ,_, a_AT1 word_NN1 which_DDQ in_II Spanish_JJ also_RR means_VVZ an_AT1 ugly_JJ hag_NN1 or_CC a_AT1 procuress_NN1 ._. 
Gironella_NP1 's_GE first_MD direct_JJ encounter_NN1 with_IW Velzquez_NP1 was_VBDZ at_II an_AT1 exhibition_NN1 of_IO his_APPGE work_NN1 at_II the_AT Metropolitan_JJ Museum_NN1 in_II New_NP1 York_NP1 in_II 1959_MC ._. 
Amongst_II the_AT works_NN on_II view_NN1 was_VBDZ the_AT one_PN1 to_II which_DDQ he_PPHS1 has_VHZ returned_VVN most_RGT often_RR the_AT portrait_NN1 of_IO Queen_NNB Mariana_NP1 of_IO Austria_NP1 ,_, second_MD wife_NN1 of_IO Philip_NP1 IV_MC ,_, painted_VVN in_II 1652_MC (_( Fig._NN1 4_MC )_) ._. 
This_DD1 painting_NN1 has_VHZ become_VVN a_AT1 veritable_JJ obsession_NN1 and_CC he_PPHS1 has_VHZ returned_VVN to_II it_PPH1 repeatedly_RR over_II the_AT past_JJ thirty_MC years_NNT2 ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ a_AT1 full-length_JJ portrait_NN1 showing_VVG the_AT young_JJ queen_NN1 very_RG formally_RR dressed_VVN ,_, in_II a_AT1 stiff_JJ conventional_JJ pose_NN1 ,_, looking_VVG out_RP at_II the_AT spectator_NN1 ._. 
She_PPHS1 wears_VVZ a_AT1 gigantic_JJ wig_NN1 decorated_VVN with_IW feathers_NN2 and_CC red_JJ bows_NN2 ,_, the_AT shape_NN1 of_IO which_DDQ echoes_VVZ that_DD1 of_IO the_AT wide_JJ skirt_NN1 ._. 
One_MC1 arm_NN1 rests_VVZ on_II the_AT farthingale_NN1 of_IO the_AT skirt_NN1 ,_, the_AT hand_NN1 very_RG delicately_RR holding_VVG a_AT1 large_JJ white_JJ scarf_NN1 ;_; the_AT other_JJ hand_NN1 rests_VVZ on_II a_AT1 chair_NN1 back_NN1 ._. 
In_II the_AT earliest_JJT versions_NN2 ,_, which_DDQ date_VV0 from_II 1959_MC 60_MC ,_, Gironella_NP1 turns_VVZ her_PPHO1 into_II a_AT1 sort_NN1 of_IO rag_NN1 doll_NN1 ;_; perhaps_RR never_RR more_DAR than_CSN a_AT1 well-dressed_JJ shell_NN1 ,_, she_PPHS1 is_VBZ now_RT simply_RR a_AT1 collage_NN1 of_IO fragments_NN2 of_IO coarse_JJ ,_, torn_JJ cloth_NN1 that_CST appear_VV0 to_TO be_VBI pasted_VVN down_RP with_IW thick_JJ smears_NN2 of_IO paint_NN1 (_( Fig._NN1 5_MC )_) ._. 
These_DD2 early_JJ half-length_JJ versions_NN2 ,_, like_II close-up_JJ details_NN2 of_IO the_AT original_JJ ,_, also_RR investigate_VV0 compositional_JJ qualities_NN2 ,_, the_AT slight_JJ angle_NN1 of_IO the_AT torso_NN1 to_II the_AT picture_NN1 plane_NN1 and_CC the_AT relationship_NN1 of_IO head_NN1 and_CC wig_NN1 to_II shoulders_NN2 ,_, as_II31 well_II32 as_II33 emphasising_VVG features_NN2 which_DDQ are_VBR to_TO become_VVI increasingly_RR fetishised_VVN in_II subsequent_JJ renderings_NN2 the_AT massive_JJ wig_NN1 ,_, for_REX21 example_REX22 ._. 
And_CC in_II the_AT second_MD version_NN1 he_PPHS1 introduces_VVZ a_AT1 three-dimensional_JJ hand_NN1 not_XX ,_, as_CSA in_II the_AT Velzquez_NN1 with_IW the_AT fingers_NN2 straight_RR and_CC limp_NN1 ,_, but_CCB drawn_VVN up_RP into_II an_AT1 uneasy_JJ gesture_NN1 ,_, that_CST claws_NN2 at_II her_APPGE skirt_NN1 rather_II21 than_II22 rests_NN2 against_II it_PPH1 ._. 
The_AT hand_NN1 and_CC the_AT wig_NN1 are_VBR to_TO become_VVI identifying_VVG features_NN2 ,_, often_RR used_VVN in_II isolation_NN1 or_CC in_II31 conjunction_II32 with_II33 elements_NN2 from_II other_JJ pictures_NN2 ._. 
They_PPHS2 become_VV0 relics_NN2 ,_, like_II the_AT dismembered_JJ remains_NN2 of_IO Catholic_JJ saints_NN2 that_CST are_VBR boxed_VVN up_RP and_CC dispersed_VVN around_II Christendom_NN1 to_TO provide_VVI individual_JJ churches_NN2 with_IW the_AT Church_NN1 's_GE authority_NN1 ._. 
Fig._NN1 3_MC ._. 
Velquez_VV0 ,_, Francisco_NP1 Lezcano_NP1 or_CC El_NP1 Nino_NP1 de_NP1 Vallecas_NP2 (_( The_AT Child_NN1 of_IO Vallecas_NP2 )_) ,_, 1637_MC ,_, oil_NN1 on_II canvas_NN1 ,_, 107_MC x_ZZ1 83_MC cms_NNU2 ._. 
Madrid_NP1 ,_, Prado_NP1 ._. 
Fig._NN1 4_MC ._. 
Velquez_VV0 ,_, Queen_NNB Mariana_NP1 ,_, 1652_MC ,_, oil_NN1 on_II canvas_NN1 ,_, 231_MC x_ZZ1 131_MC cms_NNU2 ._. 
Madrid_NP1 ,_, Prado_NP1 ._. 
In_II The_AT Black_JJ Queen_NN1 of_IO 1961_MC ,_, Mariana_NP1 has_VHZ more_DAR substance_NN1 than_CSN in_II the_AT early_JJ collages_NN2 of_IO rags_NN2 ,_, and_CC so_RR ,_, being_VBG more_RGR tangible_JJ ,_, is_VBZ more_RRR a_AT1 victim_NN1 ,_, of_IO Gironella_NP1 ,_, of_IO time_NNT1 ,_, of_IO historical_JJ circumstances_NN2 (_( Fig._NN1 6_MC )_) ._. 
In_II this_DD1 full-length_JJ version_NN1 Gironella_NP1 places_VVZ her_APPGE square_NN1 to_II the_AT picture_NN1 plane_NN1 ,_, a_AT1 crucial_JJ adjustment_NN1 which_DDQ changes_VVZ the_AT tone_NN1 from_II that_DD1 of_IO the_AT formality_NN1 of_IO the_AT original_JJ into_II one_MC1 of_IO helplessness_NN1 ._. 
Moving_VVG from_II her_APPGE external_JJ trappings_NN2 to_II her_APPGE internal_JJ structure_NN1 ,_, he_PPHS1 represents_VVZ her_PPHO1 as_II a_AT1 sort_NN1 of_IO wooden_JJ skeleton_NN1 ._. 
At_II her_APPGE breast_NN1 ,_, instead_II21 of_II22 a_AT1 gold_NN1 rosette_NN1 ,_, she_PPHS1 wears_VVZ a_AT1 brass_NN1 bell_NN1 and_CC a_AT1 series_NN of_IO wheels_NN2 and_CC cogs_NN2 ,_, apparently_RR parts_NN2 of_IO an_AT1 old-fashioned_JJ ,_, manually_RR operated_VVN lift_NN1 ._. 
She_PPHS1 is_VBZ like_II a_AT1 mechanical_JJ musical_JJ doll_NN1 that_CST will_VM perform_VVI a_AT1 ponderous_JJ dance_NN1 when_CS someone_PN1 turns_VVZ the_AT dial_NN1 ._. 
She_PPHS1 is_VBZ also_RR black_JJ ._. 
In_RR21 particular_RR22 ,_, the_AT uplifted_JJ ,_, unseeing_JJ face_NN1 ,_, and_CC the_AT hand_NN1 ,_, now_RT even_RR more_RGR tense_JJ and_CC strained_VVD ,_, are_VBR modelled_VVN in_II three_MC dimensions_NN2 and_CC painted_VVN shiny_JJ black_JJ ._. 
She_PPHS1 is_VBZ ,_, of_RR21 course_RR22 ,_, a_AT1 parody_NN1 of_IO her_APPGE pale_JJ ,_, former_DA Habsburg_NP1 self_NN1 ,_, but_CCB Gironella_NP1 's_GE title_NN1 ,_, La_NP1 Reina_NP1 Negra_NP1 ,_, suggests_VVZ a_AT1 range_NN1 of_IO different_JJ resonances_NN2 ,_, as_CSA indeed_RR it_PPH1 does_VDZ in_II English_NN1 ._. 
She_PPHS1 is_VBZ a_AT1 piece_NN1 in_II an_AT1 international_JJ game_NN1 of_IO chess_NN1 ;_; she_PPHS1 is_VBZ gloomy_JJ and_CC melancholic_JJ ;_; she_PPHS1 is_VBZ also_RR ,_, rather_RG more_RGR strongly_RR than_CSN in_II English_NN1 ,_, unlucky_JJ ,_, wretched_JJ ,_, doomed_VVN ._. 
But_CCB conversely_RR ,_, in_II Latin_JJ America_NP1 ,_, negra_NN1 or_CC neqrita_NN1 are_VBR often_RR used_VVN as_CSA terms_NN2 of_IO affection_NN1 ._. 
As_CS21 if_CS22 to_TO ensure_VVI ,_, however_RR ,_, that_CST we_PPIS2 can_VM not_XX interpret_VVI this_DD1 work_NN1 as_II a_AT1 declaration_NN1 of_IO Gironella_NP1 ,_, s_ZZ1 ideas_NN2 about_II race_NN1 and_CC colour_NN1 in_II Mexico_NP1 ,_, there_EX exists_VVZ another_DD1 version_NN1 ,_, almost_RR identical_JJ but_II21 for_II22 the_AT fact_NN1 that_CST this_DD1 is_VBZ a_AT1 white_JJ queen_NN1 ._. 
Fig._NN1 5_MC ._. 
Alberto_NP1 Gironella_NP1 ,_, Reina_NP1 Mariana_NP1 ,_, 1960_MC ,_, oil_NN1 and_CC collage_NN1 on_II canvas_NN1 ,_, 100_MC x_ZZ1 80_MC cms_NNU2 ._. 
Collection_NN1 of_IO Maurice_NP1 Reims_NP1 ,_, Paris_NP1 ._. 
Photograph_NN1 ,_, courtesy_NN1 Galeria_NP1 OMR_NP1 ,_, Mexico_NP1 ._. 
Fig._NN1 6_MC ._. 
Alberto_NP1 Gironella_NP1 ,_, Reina_NP1 Negra_NP1 (_( Black_JJ Queen_NN1 )_) ,_, 1961_MC ,_, mixed_VVD media_NN on_II canvas_NN1 ,_, 108_MC x_ZZ1 120_MC cms_NNU2 ._. 
Private_JJ Collection_NN1 ._. 
In_II the_AT following_JJ year_NNT1 she_PPHS1 is_VBZ reincarnated_VVN ,_, but_CCB into_II wood_NN1 ,_, not_XX flesh_NN1 and_CC blood_NN1 :_: she_PPHS1 becomes_VVZ furniture_NN1 ,_, a_AT1 cross_NN1 between_II a_AT1 throne_NN1 and_CC a_AT1 commode_NN1 ,_, her_APPGE mask-like_JJ head_NN1 and_CC rigid_JJ hand_NN1 fixed_VVN to_II the_AT chair_NN1 back_NN1 ,_, her_APPGE wig_NN1 suggested_VVN by_II curly_JJ iron_NN1 coat_NN1 hooks_NN2 and_CC carved_JJ wooden_JJ scrolls_NN2 and_CC flourishes_NN2 ._. 
In_II one_MC1 version_NN1 ,_, the_AT space_NN1 beneath_II the_AT seat_NN1 contains_VVZ a_AT1 small_JJ ,_, stuffed_VVD cayman_NN1 and_CC ,_, as_CSA this_DD1 is_VBZ the_AT equivalent_NN1 of_IO the_AT space_NN1 beneath_II her_APPGE skirts_NN2 ,_, there_EX are_VBR obvious_JJ psycho-sexual_JJ overtones_NN2 ._. 
In_II another_DD1 there_EX is_VBZ in_II fact_NN1 no_AT seat_NN1 as_II such_DA ,_, rather_RR like_II a_AT1 monk_NN1 's_GE misericord_NN1 ,_, a_AT1 chair_NN1 that_CST is_VBZ not_XX a_AT1 chair_NN1 (_( Fig._NN1 7_MC )_) ._. 
Again_RT her_APPGE heart_NN1 is_VBZ represented_VVN by_II the_AT mechanism_NN1 from_II an_AT1 old_JJ lift_NN1 :_: she_PPHS1 goes_VVZ up_RP and_CC down_RP as_CSA others_NN2 will_VM her_PPHO1 ._. 
The_AT origins_NN2 of_IO Gironella_NP1 's_GE peculiar_JJ assemblages_NN2 lie_VV0 in_II his_APPGE childhood_NN1 ._. 
His_APPGE earliest_JJT memories_NN2 are_VBR of_IO stacks_NN2 of_IO colourful_JJ imported_JJ tins_NN2 ,_, boxes_NN2 ,_, bottles_NN2 and_CC packets_NN2 of_IO the_AT family_NN1 grocery_NN1 business_NN1 ,_, and_CC of_IO the_AT paraphernalia_NN of_IO popular_JJ Catholicism_NN1 ,_, which_DDQ would_VM have_VHI included_VVN reliquaries_NN2 and_CC tabernacles_NN2 ,_, retables_VVZ combining_VVG paintings_NN2 and_CC sculpture_NN1 ,_, altars_NN2 decorated_VVN with_IW damask_NN1 cloth_NN1 ,_, candles_NN2 ,_, flowers_NN2 and_CC ex_II votos_NN2 of_IO an_AT1 often_RR intensely_RR personal_JJ nature_NN1 ._. 
He_PPHS1 recalls_VVZ building_NN1 himself_PPX1 private_JJ altars_NN2 of_IO chocolate_NN1 wrappers_NN2 and_CC tin_NN1 cans_NN2 ._. 
The_AT packaging_NN1 of_IO imported_JJ products_NN2 has_VHZ continued_VVN to_TO fascinate_VVI him_PPHO1 ,_, for_IF intrinsic_JJ qualities_NN2 the_AT names_NN2 ,_, the_AT colours_NN2 and_CC the_AT designs_NN2 but_CCB also_RR no_RR21 doubt_RR22 because_II21 of_II22 the_AT way_NN1 products_NN2 from_II far_RR away_RL have_VH0 been_VBN integrated_VVN into_II the_AT domestic_JJ Mexican_JJ environment_NN1 ._. 
Such_DA products_NN2 are_VBR known_VVN by_II the_AT general_JJ term_NN1 ultramarinos_NN2 ,_, '_GE from_II across_II the_AT ocean_NN1 '_GE ,_, and_CC to_TO emphasise_VVI that_CST Mariana_NP1 herself_PPX1 is_VBZ also_RR an_AT1 ultramarina_NN1 ,_, she_PPHS1 is_VBZ often_RR accompanied_VVN in_II Gironella_NP1 's_GE tableaux_NN2 by_II tins_NN2 of_IO sardines_NN2 ._. 
There_EX are_VBR connections_NN2 here_RL too_RR with_IW Spanish_JJ Golden_JJ Age_NN1 painting_NN1 which_DDQ ,_, as_CSA Gironella_NP1 himself_PPX1 has_VHZ observed_VVN ,_, often_RR looks_VVZ very_RG smelly_JJ ._. 
The_AT picaresque_JJ literature_NN1 of_IO the_AT period_NN1 is_VBZ also_RR very_RG preoccupied_JJ with_IW food_NN1 and_CC drink_NN1 ._. 
But_CCB it_PPH1 is_VBZ not_XX just_RR the_AT strong_JJ smells_NN2 of_IO food_NN1 ,_, but_CCB the_AT metaphorical_JJ smells_NN2 of_IO corruption_NN1 and_CC moral_JJ and_CC social_JJ decay_NN1 which_DDQ are_VBR suggested_VVN by_II the_AT inclusion_NN1 of_IO such_DA items_NN2 in_II his_APPGE work_NN1 ._. 
And_CC where_CS the_AT tins_NN2 of_IO fish_NN are_VBR juxtaposed_VVN with_IW fragments_NN2 of_IO Mariana_NP1 's_GE body_NN1 the_AT evocation_NN1 is_VBZ also_RR of_IO death_NN1 and_CC putrefaction_NN1 ,_, perhaps_RR also_RR of_IO coarse_JJ jokes_NN2 about_II the_AT distinctive_JJ '_GE fishy_JJ '_GE smell_NN1 of_IO vaginal_JJ secretions_NN2 ._. 
Gironella_NP1 's_GE choice_NN1 of_IO Velquez_NP1 's_GE Mariana_NP1 as_II the_AT basis_NN1 for_IF so_RG many_DA2 of_IO his_APPGE works_NN is_VBZ worth_II considering_VVG in_II more_DAR detail_NN1 ._. 
First_MD ,_, to_TO develop_VVI the_AT idea_NN1 of_IO the_AT punning_JJ associations_NN2 already_RR referred_VVN to_II in_II31 relation_II32 to_II33 the_AT term_NN1 ultramarinos_NN2 ,_, there_EX is_VBZ the_AT pleasing_JJ assonance_NN1 between_II the_AT name_NN1 of_IO this_DD1 earthly_JJ Queen_NNB Mariana_NP1 ,_, and_CC that_DD1 of_IO Maria_NP1 ,_, Queen_NN1 of_IO Heaven_NN1 ._. 
The_AT Virgin_NN1 has_VHZ always_RR been_VBN more_RGR popular_JJ than_CSN Christ_NP1 in_II the_AT New_JJ World_NN1 ;_; indeed_RR in_II the_AT sixteenth_MD century_NNT1 certain_JJ churchmen_NN2 had_VHD argued_VVN that_CST while_CS the_AT East_ND1 was_VBDZ the_AT domain_NN1 of_IO Christ_NP1 ,_, the_AT newly_RR discovered_VVD West_ND1 was_VBDZ that_DD1 of_IO his_APPGE mother_NN1 ._. 
Once_RR in_II America_NP1 ,_, however_RR ,_, Maria_NP1 soon_RR fragments_NN2 into_II numerous_JJ different_JJ Marias_NP2 ,_, each_DD1 with_IW her_APPGE own_DA distinctive_JJ attributes_NN2 ._. 
In_II Mexico_NP1 ,_, during_II the_AT Wars_NN2 of_IO Independence_NN1 the_AT Virgin_NN1 of_IO Guadalupe_NP1 protected_VVD the_AT nationalist_JJ forces_NN2 while_CS the_AT Spaniards_NN2 placed_VVN their_APPGE trust_NN1 in_II the_AT Virgen_NN1 de_FW los_FW Remedios_NN2 ._. 
Gironella_NP1 's_GE many_DA2 versions_NN2 of_IO Velzquez_NP1 's_GE Mariana_NP1 similarly_RR fragment_VV0 her_PPHO1 into_II different_JJ roles_NN2 queen_NN1 ,_, woman_NN1 ,_, icon_NN1 ,_, cadaver_VV0 ,_, carnival_JJ figure_NN1 ,_, victim_NN1 ,_, aggressor_NN1 ._. 
There_EX is_VBZ a_AT1 third_MD sister_NN1 in_II this_DD1 euphonious_JJ family_NN1 :_: Marina_NP1 ,_, the_AT baptised_JJ name_NN1 of_IO Malinche_NP1 ,_, mistress_NN1 of_IO Cortz_NP1 ,_, through_II whose_DDQGE good_JJ offices_NN2 and_CC linguistic_JJ skills_NN2 Mexico_NP1 was_VBDZ conquered_VVN both_RR for_IF the_AT Virgin_NN1 Maria_NP1 ,_, and_CC for_IF Marina_NP1 's_GE royal_JJ ancestors_NN2 ._. 
Marina_NP1 is_VBZ the_AT original_JJ and_CC ultimate_JJ traitor_NN1 to_II her_APPGE people_NN ,_, but_CCB as_CSA mother_NN1 of_IO the_AT first_MD mestizo_NN1 she_PPHS1 is_VBZ also_RR the_AT mother_NN1 of_IO modern_JJ Mexico_NP1 ._. 
Mariana_NP1 herself_PPX1 is_VBZ remembered_VVN more_RRR as_II a_AT1 name_NN1 on_II a_AT1 family_NN1 tree_NN1 than_CSN as_II a_AT1 person_NN1 ._. 
Wife_NN1 of_IO Philip_NP1 IV_MC ,_, she_PPHS1 was_VBDZ also_RR his_APPGE niece_NN1 ;_; she_PPHS1 had_VHD been_VBN betrothed_VVN to_II his_APPGE son_NN1 Baltasar_NP1 Carlos_NP1 but_CCB on_II his_APPGE death_NN1 at_II seventeen_MC the_AT King_NN1 (_( her_APPGE uncle_NN1 )_) married_VVD her_PPHO1 himself_PPX1 ,_, and_CC the_AT only_JJ surviving_JJ son_NN1 of_IO this_DD1 union_NN1 was_VBDZ the_AT cretinous_JJ Charles_NP1 II_MC ,_, last_MD of_IO the_AT Habsburg_NP1 line_NN1 ._. 
She_PPHS1 is_VBZ also_RR remembered_VVN because_CS she_PPHS1 was_VBDZ painted_VVN by_II Velzquez_NP1 ,_, although_CS this_DD1 is_VBZ not_XX unrelated_JJ to_II the_AT family_NN1 tree_NN1 ._. 
Velzquez_NP1 shaped_VVD the_AT public_JJ image_NN1 of_IO this_DD1 family_NN1 for_IF his_APPGE own_DA and_CC for_IF all_DB subsequent_JJ generations_NN2 ,_, investing_VVG them_PPHO2 with_IW an_AT1 extraordinary_JJ pictorial_JJ power_NN1 and_CC stability_NN1 ._. 
His_APPGE portraits_NN2 must_VM in_II turn_VVI be_VBI considered_VVN an_AT1 important_JJ constituent_NN1 in_II their_APPGE power_NN1 ,_, as_CSA compensation_NN1 for_IF their_APPGE more_RGR corporeal_JJ weaknesses_NN2 ._. 
With_IW hindsight_NN1 it_PPH1 perhaps_RR seems_VVZ strange_JJ that_CST one_MC1 of_IO the_AT indisputably_RR greatest_JJT figures_NN2 in_II the_AT whole_NN1 of_IO Western_JJ art_NN1 devoted_VVD the_AT better_JJR part_NN1 of_IO his_APPGE life_NN1 to_II sell-advancement_NN1 ,_, and_CC to_II painting_VVG the_AT King_NN1 ,_, his_APPGE family_NN1 ,_, and_CC their_APPGE attendant_JJ dogs_NN2 ,_, dwarves_NN2 and_CC sycophants_NN2 Certainly_RR the_AT irony_NN1 of_IO this_DD1 ,_, together_RL with_IW the_AT fact_NN1 that_CST this_DD1 inbred_JJ family_NN1 of_IO often_RR considerable_JJ mental_JJ as_II31 well_II32 as_II33 physical_JJ fragility_NN1 should_VM have_VHI controlled_VVN the_AT destiny_NN1 of_IO so_RG vast_JJ an_AT1 empire_NN1 ,_, is_VBZ not_XX lost_VVN on_II Gironella._NP1 fig._NN1 7_MC ._. 
Alberto_NP1 Gironella_NP1 ,_, Reina_NP1 Mariana_NP1 ,_, 1962_MC ,_, object_VV0 ._. 
Private_JJ collection_NN1 ._. 
We_PPIS2 can_VM read_VVI into_II Las_NP1 Meninas_NP1 such_DA a_AT1 view_NN1 of_IO the_AT Habsburgs_NP2 (_( Fig._NN1 8_MC )_) :_: Philip_NP1 IV_MC and_CC Mariana_NP1 are_VBR merely_RR reflections_NN2 ,_, living_VVG in_II a_AT1 world_NN1 of_IO grotesquerie_NN1 and_CC make-believe_NN1 ;_; a_AT1 tiny_JJ princess_NN1 dressed_VVN as_II an_AT1 adult_NN1 with_IW a_AT1 skirt_NN1 so_RG stiff_RR it_PPH1 makes_VVZ her_APPGE look_NN1 as_CS21 if_CS22 she_PPHS1 is_VBZ on_II wheels_NN2 ,_, surrounded_VVN by_II curtseying_VVG maids_NN2 ,_, a_AT1 dwarf_NN1 ,_, a_AT1 midget_NN1 ,_, a_AT1 huge_JJ dog_NN1 with_IW the_AT ability_NN1 to_TO sleep_VVI through_II anything_PN1 ,_, and_CC a_AT1 great_JJ artist_NN1 ,_, aloof_JJ and_CC all-powerful_JJ ._. 
Such_DA a_AT1 view_NN1 is_VBZ of_RR21 course_RR22 anachronistic_JJ ,_, but_CCB this_DD1 is_VBZ exactly_RR the_AT attraction_NN1 of_IO Gironella_NP1 's_GE reworkings_NN2 he_PPHS1 can_VM present_VVI us_PPIO2 with_IW shifting_JJ visions_NN2 of_IO the_AT art_NN1 of_IO the_AT past_NN1 ,_, from_II within_RL and_CC from_II without_RL ,_, exploiting_VVG contrary_JJ responses_NN2 ,_, period_NN1 eye_NN1 and_CC innocent_JJ eye_NN1 ._. 
Not_XX surprisingly_RR Gironella_NP1 has_VHZ returned_VVN over_RP and_CC again_RT to_II aspects_NN2 of_IO Las_NP1 Meninas_NP1 and_CC in_RR21 particular_RR22 to_II the_AT portrait_NN1 of_IO the_AT artist_NN1 himself_PPX1 ,_, the_AT insider_NN1 ,_, the_AT fawning_JJ courtier_NN1 ,_, the_AT creator_NN1 of_IO icons_NN2 ._. 
Festin_NN1 in_II Palacio_NP1 is_VBZ one_MC1 of_IO Gironella_NP1 's_GE latter-day_JJ altarpieces_NN2 ,_, and_CC a_AT1 digest_NN1 of_IO elements_NN2 from_II three_MC paintings_NN2 Queen_NNB Mariana_NP1 ,_, Las_NP1 Meninas_NP1 and_CC the_AT portrait_NN1 of_IO the_AT dwarf_NN1 Francisco_NP1 Lezcano_NP1 ,_, popularly_RR known_VVN as_II El_NP1 Nio_NP1 de_NP1 Vallecas_NP2 (_( Fig._NN1 9_MC )_) ._. 
In_II the_AT lower_JJR register_NN1 ,_, on_II the_AT altar_NN1 frontal_JJ ,_, the_AT tilted_JJ head_NN1 of_IO Lezcano_NP1 leers_VVZ at_II us_PPIO2 while_CS ,_, boxed_VVD up_RP alongside_RL ,_, a_AT1 disembodied_JJ head_NN1 and_CC a_AT1 hand_NN1 are_VBR presented_VVN as_CSA relics_NN2 of_IO Queen_NNB Mariana_NP1 while_CS above_II Velzquez_NP1 himself_PPX1 ,_, palette_NN1 in_II hand_NN1 ,_, seems_VVZ to_TO fade_VVI into_II a_AT1 dog_NN1 ._. 
On_II the_AT altar_NN1 table_NN1 itself_PPX1 ,_, in_II31 front_II32 of_II33 a_AT1 piece_NN1 of_IO red_JJ damask_NN1 ,_, lies_VVZ a_AT1 large_JJ ,_, realistically-modelled_JJ dog_NN1 ._. 
This_DD1 is_VBZ the_AT dog_NN1 from_II the_AT foreground_NN1 of_IO Las_NP1 Meninas_NP1 ,_, but_CCB here_RL awake_JJ and_CC ready_JJ for_IF action_NN1 ,_, the_AT centre_NN1 of_IO attraction_NN1 and_CC ,_, apparently_RR ,_, the_AT object_NN1 of_IO devotion_NN1 ._. 
The_AT implications_NN2 of_IO Festin_NP1 in_II Palacio_NP1 are_VBR realised_VVN in_II a_AT1 particularly_RR horrific_JJ version_NN1 of_IO Queen_NNB Mariana_NP1 of_IO 1963_MC ,_, Perro_NP1 devorando_NN1 a_II21 la_II22 Reina_NP1 Mariana_NP1 (_( Dog_NN1 devouring_VVG Queen_NNB Mariana_NP1 )_) where_RRQ she_PPHS1 is_VBZ set_VVN upon_II by_II hunting_NN1 dogs_NN2 who_PNQS tear_VV0 at_II her_APPGE blood-red_JJ head_NN1 gear_NN1 (_( Fig._NN1 10_MC )_) ._. 
During_II the_AT conquest_NN1 of_IO the_AT Caribbean_NP1 the_AT Spaniards_NN2 trained_VVN packs_NN2 of_IO such_DA dogs_NN2 to_TO kill_VVI Indians_NN2 and_CC so_RR to_TO wipe_VVI out_RP whole_JJ villages_NN2 ._. 
Here_RL history_NN1 is_VBZ inverted_JJ :_: Mariana_NP1 ,_, Queen_NN1 of_IO the_AT American_JJ Empire_NN1 ,_, is_VBZ devoured_VVN by_II her_APPGE own_DA hounds_NN2 ._. 
But_CCB no_AT simple_JJ anti-colonial_JJ reading_NN1 of_IO Gironella_NP1 's_GE work_NN1 is_VBZ possible_JJ ,_, precisely_RR because_CS to_TO denounce_VVI the_AT Fig._NN1 8_MC ._. 
Velzquez_VV0 ,_, Las_NP1 Meninas_NP1 ,_, 1656_MC ,_, oil_NN1 on_II canvas_NN1 ,_, 318_MC x_ZZ1 276_MC cms_NNU2 ._. 
Madrid_NP1 ,_, Prado_NP1 ._. 
Fig._NN1 9_MC ._. 
Alberto_NP1 Gironella_NP1 ,_, Festin_NP1 in_II Palacio_NP1 ,_, 1958_MC ,_, retable_JJ ,_, 251_MC x_ZZ1 174_MC x_ZZ1 60.5_MC cms_NNU2 ._. 
Collection_NN1 Maria_NP1 Rodriquez_NP1 de_NP1 Reyero_NP1 ,_, Mexico_NP1 ._. 
Photograph_NN1 ,_, courtesy_NN1 Galeria_NP1 OMR_NP1 ,_, Mexico_NP1 ._. 
Spanish_JJ past_NN1 is_VBZ to_TO deny_VVI many_DA2 of_IO the_AT elements_NN2 which_DDQ go_VV0 to_TO make_VVI up_RP modern_JJ Mexico_NP1 ._. 
The_AT Queen_NN1 of_IO Yokes_NN2 is_VBZ a_AT1 good_JJ example_NN1 in_II its_APPGE complexity_NN1 and_CC range_NN1 of_IO reference_NN1 (_( Fig._NN1 11_MC )_) ._. 
Here_RL again_RT Mariana_NP1 is_VBZ pinned_VVN out_RP flat_RR ,_, composed_VVD of_IO disparate_JJ elements_NN2 ._. 
Her_APPGE wig_NN1 is_VBZ made_VVN up_RP of_IO bottle_NN1 tops_NN2 ,_, left_VVD over_RP from_II ordinary_JJ twentieth-century_JJ life_NN1 ,_, trodden_VVN into_II the_AT dirt_NN1 underfoot_RL ,_, pressed_VVN on_II21 to_II22 noticeboards_NN2 ._. 
The_AT majority_NN1 are_VBR painted_VVN yellow_JJ ,_, the_AT colour_NN1 of_IO the_AT bottle_NN1 tops_NN2 on_II Superior_JJ ,_, a_AT1 light_JJ Mexican_JJ beer_NN1 famous_JJ for_IF its_APPGE slogan_NN1 '_GE la_FW rubia_NN1 que_FW todos_NN2 quieren_NN1 '_GE '_GE the_AT blonde_NN1 which_DDQ everybody_PN1 loves/wants_NN2 '_GE ,_, reducing_VVG Mariana_NP1 to_II that_DD1 Latin_JJ American_JJ clich_NN1 ,_, the_AT accessible_JJ ,_, desirable_JJ ,_, blonde_JJ foreign_JJ female_NN1 ._. 
Her_APPGE expression_NN1 here_RL is_VBZ a_AT1 mixture_NN1 of_IO naivet_NN1 and_CC anxiety_NN1 ._. 
Her_APPGE carved_JJ wooden_JJ bodice_NN1 suggests_VVZ popular_JJ Mexican_JJ crafts_NN2 ,_, and_CC particularly_RR the_AT calaveras_NN2 ,_, animated_JJ skeletons_NN2 which_DDQ make_VV0 up_RP her_APPGE rib_NN1 cage_NN1 ._. 
These_DD2 are_VBR the_AT central_JJ feature_NN1 of_IO the_AT Day_NNT1 of_IO the_AT Dead_JJ celebrations_NN2 in_II Mexico_NP1 ,_, but_CCB then_RT again_RT skulls_NN2 and_CC skeletons_NN2 are_VBR commonly_RR used_VVN as_CSA emblems_NN2 of_IO the_AT transience_NN1 of_IO life_NN1 in_II seventeenth-century_JJ Spanish_JJ painting_NN1 ._. 
The_AT gourd-breasts_NN2 and_CC the_AT leather-thonged_JJ sorcerer_NN1 's_GE switch_NN1 can_VM be_VBI seen_VVN as_CSA referring_VVG to_II indigenous_JJ culture_NN1 ,_, as_CSA can_VM the_AT snakes_NN2 '_GE heads_NN2 with_IW which_DDQ the_AT yokes_NN2 of_IO her_APPGE skirt_NN1 appear_VV0 to_TO terminate_VVI ._. 
The_AT inclusion_NN1 of_IO these_DD2 wooden_JJ yokes_NN2 ,_, the_AT yugos_NN2 of_IO verbal_JJ associations_NN2 and_CC pun_NN1 ._. 
The_AT word_NN1 Yugo_NN1 in_II Spanish_JJ ,_, as_CSA in_II English_NN1 ,_, evokes_VVZ different_JJ ideas_NN2 :_: el_VV0 yuqo_NN1 colonial_JJ ,_, el_VV0 yugo_NN1 matrimonial_JJ and_CC el_VV0 yugo_NN1 de_FW la_FW iglesia_NN1 ,_, the_AT colonial_JJ yoke_NN1 ,_, and_CC the_AT yokes_NN2 of_IO marriage_NN1 and_CC of_IO the_AT church_NN1 ,_, and_CC all_DB of_IO these_DD2 are_VBR implied_VVN here_RL ._. 
Mariana_NP1 is_VBZ yoked_VVN in_II an_AT1 arranged_JJ marriage_NN1 to_II her_APPGE uncle_NN1 ,_, Philip_NP1 IV_MC ;_; she_PPHS1 ,_, as_CSA representative_NN1 of_IO the_AT Spanish_JJ crown_NN1 ,_, is_VBZ also_RR a_AT1 representative_NN1 of_IO the_AT colonial_JJ and_CC religious_JJ yokes_NN2 which_DDQ bound_VVD Mexico_NP1 to_II Spain_NP1 ._. 
The_AT motif_NN1 of_IO the_AT yoke_NN1 was_VBDZ originally_RR the_AT emblem_NN1 of_IO Isabella_NP1 of_IO Castile_NP1 ,_, Mariana_NP1 's_GE distant_JJ predecessor_NN1 ,_, who_PNQS had_VHD been_VBN responsible_JJ for_IF sending_VVG Columbus_NP1 on_II his_APPGE first_MD transatlantic_JJ voyage_NN1 in_II 1492_MC ;_; in_II other_JJ words_NN2 she_PPHS1 had_VHD been_VBN responsible_JJ for_IF initiating_VVG the_AT whole_JJ colonial_JJ process_NN1 (_( Fig._NN1 12_MC )_) ._. 
In_II the_AT present_JJ century_NNT1 the_AT combined_JJ emblems_NN2 of_IO Isabella_NP1 's_GE yoke_NN1 (_( Y_ZZ1 for_IF Ysabella_NP1 )_) and_CC her_APPGE husband_NN1 Ferdinand_NP1 's_GE arrows_NN2 (_( Flechas_NP2 )_) were_VBDR expropriated_VVN by_II the_AT Falangists_NN2 in_II an_AT1 attempt_NN1 to_TO claim_VVI some_DD historical_JJ legitimacy_NN1 ._. 
In_II other_JJ words_NN2 ,_, verbally_RR and_CC visually_RR the_AT emblem_NN1 of_IO the_AT yoke_NN1 has_VHZ strong_JJ resonances_NN2 in_II Spain_NP1 and_CC Mexico_NP1 ._. 
But_CCB it_PPH1 is_VBZ important_JJ that_CST here_RL the_AT yokes_NN2 are_VBR inverted_JJ :_: Mariana_NP1 and_CC the_AT ties_NN2 with_IW Spain_NP1 she_PPHS1 represents_VVZ have_VH0 been_VBN transformed_VVN ,_, translated_VVN into_II Mexican_JJ ,_, into_II the_AT complexities_NN2 of_IO the_AT mestizo_NN1 Mexican_JJ present_NN1 ._. 
She_PPHS1 is_VBZ an_AT1 essential_JJ but_CCB individually_RR helpless_JJ cog_NN1 in_II the_AT colonial_JJ machine_NN1 ;_; she_PPHS1 is_VBZ pinned_VVN out_RP like_II a_AT1 pre-columbian_JJ sacrificial_JJ victim_NN1 ,_, bruised_JJ and_CC blood-stained_JJ ;_; she_PPHS1 is_VBZ a_AT1 religious_JJ icon_NN1 ,_, like_II a_AT1 popular_JJ image_NN1 of_IO the_AT Virgin_NN1 Maria_NP1 ;_; she_PPHS1 is_VBZ a_AT1 mannikin_NN1 from_II some_DD popular_JJ religious_JJ festival_NN1 ._. 
Fig._NN1 10_MC ._. 
Alberto_NP1 Gironella_NP1 ,_, Perro_NP1 devorando_NN1 a_II21 la_II22 Reina_NP1 Mariana_NP1 (_( Dog_NN1 devouring_VVG Queen_NNB Mariana_NP1 )_) ,_, 1963_MC ,_, painting/object_NN1 ._. 
No_RR21 longer_RR22 extant_JJ ._. 
Fig._NN1 11_MC ._. 
Alberto_NP1 Gironella_NP1 ,_, La_NP1 Reina_NP1 de_FW los_FW yugos_NN2 (_( The_AT Queen_NN1 of_IO the_AT Yokes_NN2 )_) ,_, 19751981_MC ,_, oil_NN1 and_CC collage_NN1 on_II canvas_NN1 ,_, 240_MC x_ZZ1 180_MC cms_NNU2 ._. 
Collection_NN1 of_IO Luis_NP1 Felipe_NP1 de_NP1 Valle_NP1 ,_, Mexico_NP1 ._. 
Photograph_NN1 :_: Bob_NP1 Schalkwijk_NP1 ,_, courtesy_NN1 of_IO Galeria_NP1 OMR_NP1 ,_, Mexico_NP1 ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ worth_II stressing_VVG the_AT differences_NN2 between_II Gironella_NP1 's_GE treatment_NN1 of_IO the_AT art_NN1 of_IO the_AT Spanish_JJ past_NN1 and_CC that_DD1 of_IO Picasso_NP1 ._. 
Picasso_NP1 's_GE extensive_JJ series_NN of_IO variations_NN2 on_II Las_NP1 Meninas_NP1 was_VBDZ produced_VVN in_II 1957_MC ,_, but_CCB even_CS21 if_CS22 Gironella_NP1 knew_VVD of_IO them_PPHO2 when_CS he_PPHS1 himself_PPX1 began_VVD to_TO work_VVI on_II versions_NN2 of_IO Velzquez_NP1 (_( which_DDQ is_VBZ highly_RR unlikely_JJ ,_, as_CSA Picasso_NP1 's_GE paintings_NN2 were_VBDR not_XX exhibited_VVN until_II 1959_MC )_) ;_; even_CS21 though_CS22 their_APPGE interest_NN1 in_II the_AT art_NN1 of_IO the_AT past_NN1 at_II that_DD1 point_NN1 in_II their_APPGE careers_NN2 was_VBDZ for_IF both_DB2 ,_, perhaps_RR ,_, a_AT1 rejection_NN1 of_IO abstraction_NN1 ;_; and_CC even_CS21 though_CS22 both_DB2 can_VV0 in_II some_DD way_NN1 be_VBI defined_VVN as_CSA exiled_VVN from_II their_APPGE Spanish_JJ roots_NN2 ,_, as_CSA outsiders_NN2 looking_VVG in_RP yet_RR the_AT results_NN2 are_VBR widely_RR divergent_JJ ._. 
Picasso_NP1 's_GE paintings_NN2 are_VBR principally_RR explorations_NN2 of_IO ,_, or_CC developments_NN2 of_IO matters_NN2 internal_JJ to_II Las_NP1 Meninas_NP1 :_: the_AT light_NN1 ,_, the_AT perspective_NN1 ,_, the_AT angle_NN1 of_IO Mariana_NP1 's_GE head_NN1 ,_, the_AT bobbing_JJ handmaids_NN2 ,_, echoed_VVD ,_, for_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, in_II the_AT paintings_NN2 of_IO pigeons_NN2 bobbing_VVG on_II his_APPGE window_NN1 sill_NN1 ,_, and_RR31 so_RR32 on_RR33 ._. 
In_II one_MC1 version_NN1 ,_, for_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, the_AT odd_JJ position_NN1 of_IO Nicolas_NP1 Pertusato_NP1 's_GE hands_NN2 is_VBZ rationalised_VVN by_II the_AT addition_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 piano_NN1 ._. 
Gironella_NN1 is_VBZ far_RR removed_VVN from_II such_DA light_JJ humour_NN1 ._. 
Edouard_NP1 Jaguer_NP1 ,_, when_CS comparing_VVG the_AT two_MC ,_, rather_RG acidly_RR remarks_VVZ that_DD1 '_VBZ despite_II all_DB the_AT irritating_JJ virtuosity_NN1 '_GE of_IO Picasso_NP1 's_GE rendering_NN1 of_IO Delacroix_NP1 or_CC Manet_NP1 or_CC Velzquez_NP1 ,_, in_II the_AT end_NN1 they_PPHS2 are_VBR one-dimensional_JJ ._. 
Gironella_NN1 is_VBZ of_RR21 course_RR22 also_RR interested_JJ in_II the_AT formal_JJ qualities_NN2 of_IO these_DD2 works_NN ,_, but_CCB it_PPH1 is_VBZ the_AT subject_NN1 matter_NN1 ,_, the_AT content_NN1 ,_, which_DDQ really_RR holds_VVZ his_APPGE imagination_NN1 ._. 
Drawn_VVN to_II the_AT aspects_NN2 of_IO Spanish_JJ history_NN1 ,_, Gironella_NP1 found_VVD in_II Velquez_NP1 's_GE portraits_NN2 a_AT1 perfect_JJ starting_NN1 point_NN1 for_IF a_AT1 detailed_JJ investigation_NN1 of_IO the_AT contradictions_NN2 which_DDQ go_VV0 to_TO make_VVI up_RP modern_JJ Mexico_NP1 ._. 
His_APPGE preoccupations_NN2 are_VBR unusual_JJ (_( if_CS not_XX unique_JJ ,_, as_CSA he_PPHS1 claims_VVZ )_) but_CCB they_PPHS2 are_VBR unquestionably_RR engendered_VVN by_II the_AT search_NN1 for_IF a_AT1 cultural_JJ identity_NN1 which_DDQ lies_VVZ behind_II so_RG much_DA1 of_IO Latin_JJ America_NP1 's_GE greatest_JJT artistic_JJ and_CC literary_JJ creations_NN2 ._. 
Ambivalence_NN1 towards_II European_JJ culture_NN1 ,_, doubts_NN2 about_II the_AT possibilities_NN2 of_IO finding_VVG an_AT1 authentic_JJ voice_NN1 ,_, a_AT1 restless_JJ search_NN1 for_IF confidence_NN1 and_CC self-esteem_NN1 ,_, these_DD2 are_VBR among_II the_AT many_DA2 bitter_JJ fruits_NN2 of_IO colonial_JJ rule_NN1 in_II Latin_JJ America_NP1 ._. 
In_II 1921_MC ,_, Siqueiros_NP2 had_VHD urged_VVN artists_NN2 to_TO '_" avoid_VVI those_DD2 lamentable_JJ archaeological_JJ reconstructions_NN2 '_GE (_( '_GE Indianism_NN1 '_GE ,_, '_GE Primitivism_NN1 '_GE ,_, '_GE Americanism'_NP1 )_) but_CCB he_PPHS1 had_VHD also_RR warned_VVN against_II the_AT use_NN1 of_IO '_GE archaic_JJ motifs_NN2 '_GE from_II the_AT old_JJ masters_NN2 of_IO European_JJ art_NN1 '_GE which_DDQ for_IF us_PPIO2 would_VM be_VBI exotic_JJ '_GE ;_; instead_RR his_APPGE advice_NN1 was_VBDZ to_TO study_VVI the_AT arts_NN2 of_IO both_DB2 ,_, learning_VVG from_II the_AT '_GE constructive_JJ base_NN1 '_GE ,_, the_AT '_GE great_JJ sincerity_NN1 '_GE ,_, of_IO the_AT latter_DA ,_, and_CC the_AT '_GE synthetic_JJ energy_NN1 '_GE of_IO the_AT former_DA ,_, to_TO combine_VVI the_AT '_GE lost_JJ values_NN2 '_GE of_IO the_AT past_NN1 with_IW new_JJ values_NN2 to_TO produce_VVI an_AT1 art_NN1 appropriate_JJ to_II modern_JJ America_NP1 ._. 
It_PPH1 may_VM not_XX be_VBI quite_RG what_DDQ Siqueiros_NP2 envisaged_VVD ,_, but_CCB Gironella_NP1 's_GE is_VBZ an_AT1 authentically_RR Mexican_JJ solution_NN1 ._. 
Fig._NN1 12_MC ._. 
Arrows_NN2 and_CC yoke_NN1 emblem_NN1 of_IO Ferdinand_NP1 and_CC Isabella_NP1 ,_, the_AT Catholic_JJ Kings_NN2 from_II Casa_NN1 de_NP1 Las_NP1 Conchas_NP1 ,_, Salamanca_NP1 ,_, 1483_MC ._. 
Previous_JJ Convictions_NN2 Paul_NP1 Wood_NP1 Against_II Postmodernism_NN1 :_: A_ZZ1 Marxist_JJ Critique_NN1 ,_, Alex_NP1 Callinicos_NP2 ,_, Polity_NP1 Press_NN1 in_II31 association_II32 with_II33 Basil_NP1 Blackwell_NP1 ,_, Oxford_NP1 ,_, 1989._MC pp._NNU2 207_MC ,_, ISBN_NP1 0_MC 7456_MC 0614_MC 8._MC 8.95_MC ._. 
What_DDQ is_VBZ it_PPH1 that_CST makes_VVZ this_DD1 substantial_JJ book_NN1 produce_VV0 ,_, mixed-in_JJ with_IW its_APPGE rewards_NN2 and_CC knowledge_NN1 ,_, a_AT1 depressing_JJ effect_NN1 ?_? 
Does_VDZ it_PPH1 matter_VVI ?_? 
Callinicos_NP1 '_GE own_DA apology_NN1 about_II publishing_VVG yet_RR another_DD1 study_NN1 of_IO an_AT1 over-worked_JJ subject_NN1 notwithstanding_RR ,_, it_PPH1 remains_VVZ an_AT1 important_JJ contemporary_JJ debate_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ n't_XX that_DD1 ;_; the_AT more_RGR so_RR since_II Callinicos_NP2 '_GE contribution_NN1 contains_VVZ a_AT1 significantly_RR original_JJ dimension_NN1 ._. 
Despite_II its_APPGE fashionable_JJ subject_NN1 the_AT book_NN1 is_VBZ in_II no_AT sense_NN1 routine_NN1 ._. 
Uncritical_JJ testimonials_NN2 to_II the_AT postmodern_JJ 's_GE attractions_NN2 are_VBR ten_MC a_AT1 penny_NNU1 ,_, and_CC conservative_JJ denunciations_NN2 thereof_RR not_XX much_RR scarcer_JJR ._. 
This_DD1 study_NN1 has_VHZ the_AT distinction_NN1 of_IO being_VBG both_RR critical_JJ and_CC radical_NN1 ,_, essentially_RR turning_VVG the_AT tables_NN2 on_II advocates_NN2 of_IO the_AT postmodern_JJ and_CC reading_VVG their_APPGE rhetoric_NN1 as_CSA symptomatic_JJ of_IO a_AT1 conservative_JJ milieu_NN1 's_GE interests_NN2 in_II a_AT1 period_NN1 of_IO overall_JJ stagnation_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 is_58 '_GE of_RR21 course_RR22 '_GE unlikely_JJ that_CST Callinicos_NN2 '_GE criticism_NN1 will_VM cut_VVI much_DA1 ice_NN1 with_IW those_DD2 whose_DDQGE substantial_JJ career_NN1 investments_NN2 lie_VV0 in_II one_MC1 or_CC another_DD1 of_IO the_AT postmodern_JJ 's_GE corners_NN2 :_: movementist_NN1 politics_NN1 ,_, the_AT radical_JJ academy_NN1 ,_, post_II this-ism_FU and_CC that-ism_FU ,_, a_AT1 variety_NN1 of_IO well-upholstered_NN1 '_GE dissenting_NN1 '_GE niches_NN2 from_II both_DB2 the_AT dominant_JJ culture_NN1 and_CC traditional_JJ opposition_NN1 to_II it_PPH1 ._. 
Too_RG much_DA1 is_VBZ at_II stake_NN1 for_IF a_AT1 book_NN1 dedicated_VVN to_II proving_VVG the_AT continuing_JJ value_NN1 of_IO classical_JJ Marxism_NN1 to_TO dislodge_VVI them_PPHO2 ._. 
Maybe_RR this_DD1 is_VBZ one_MC1 reason_NN1 for_IF depression_NN1 ,_, then_RT :_: that_CST the_AT book_NN1 's_GE well-wrought_JJ arguments_NN2 will_VM not_XX exercise_VVI those_DD2 whose_DDQGE ideology_NN1 it_PPH1 dissects_VVZ ._. 
This_DD1 indeed_RR has_VHZ already_RR happened_VVN ._. 
Callinicos_NP1 '_GE Marxism_NN1 has_VHZ been_VBN repelled_VVN from_II the_AT ramparts_NN2 of_IO pluralism_NN1 for_IF being_VBG ..._... well_RR ,_, Marxist_JJ ._. 
It_PPH1 leads_VVZ to_II the_AT Gulag_NN1 ,_, you_PPY know_VV0 ,_, and_CC is_VBZ patriarchal_JJ to_TO boot_VVI (_( translation_NN1 :_: Marx_NP1 had_VHD a_AT1 beard_NN1 )_) ._. 
Given_CS21 that_CS22 Callinicos_NN2 '_GE book_NN1 is_VBZ difficult_JJ ,_, and_CC given_VVN the_AT probability_NN1 that_CST despite_II the_AT seriousness_NN1 of_IO its_APPGE argument_NN1 it_PPH1 is_VBZ unlikely_JJ to_TO be_VBI widely_RR debated_VVN ,_, I_PPIS1 will_VM firstly_RR offer_VVI an_AT1 interpretation_NN1 of_IO what_DDQ I_PPIS1 think_VV0 its_APPGE main_JJ themes_NN2 are_VBR ,_, and_CC what_DDQ they_PPHS2 are_VBR not_XX ._. 
In_II the_AT first_MD place_NN1 ,_, as_CSA the_AT title_NN1 makes_VVZ plain_NN1 ,_, if_CS offers_NN2 a_AT1 searching_JJ criticism_NN1 of_IO the_AT claim_NN1 that_CST we_PPIS2 are_VBR living_VVG in_II a_AT1 postmodern_JJ epoch_NN1 ,_, and_CC the_AT consequence_NN1 of_IO that_DD1 claim_NN1 ,_, that_CST the_AT culture_NN1 and_CC politics_NN1 appropriate_JJ to_II such_DA an_AT1 epoch_NN1 are_VBR structurally_RR different_JJ from_II those_DD2 of_IO the_AT preceding_JJ and_CC now_RT past_II Modern_JJ one_PN1 ._. 
Callinicos_NP1 '_GE criticism_NN1 of_IO the_AT '_GE postmodern_JJ '_GE hypothesis_NN1 contains_VVZ a_AT1 range_NN1 of_IO emphases_NN2 ,_, the_AT three_MC principal_JJ ones_NN2 of_IO which_DDQ are_VBR :_: First_MD :_: advocates_NN2 of_IO the_AT postmodern_JJ in_II art_NN1 (_( which_DDQ attains_VVZ uncommon_JJ prominence_NN1 in_CS41 so_CS42 far_CS43 as_CS44 the_AT '_GE postmodern_JJ '_GE is_VBZ powerfully_RR underwritten_VVN by_II a_AT1 claimed_JJ distinction_NN1 from_II Modernism_NN1 )_) ,_, tend_VV0 to_TO misread_VVI the_AT modern_JJ and_CC arrogate_VVI its_APPGE defining_JJ characteristics_NN2 to_II their_APPGE own_DA period_NN1 ._. 
The_AT main_JJ ones_NN2 of_IO these_DD2 are_VBR :_: the_AT ordering_NN1 concept_NN1 of_IO '_GE doubling_NN1 '_GE double_JJ coding_NN1 ,_, the_AT laying_NN1 of_IO one_MC1 text_NN1 over_RP or_CC against_II another_DD1 ;_; the_AT relationship_NN1 to_II historical_JJ codes_NN2 of_IO representation_NN1 ;_; and_CC the_AT relationship_NN1 to_II popular_JJ codes_NN2 of_IO representation_NN1 ._. 
Callinicos_NN2 is_VBZ able_JK to_TO set_VVI the_AT claims_NN2 of_IO such_DA postmodern_JJ advocates_NN2 as_CSA Charles_NP1 Jencks_NP1 and_CC Linda_NP1 Hutcheon_NP1 against_II an_AT1 analysis_NN1 of_IO Modernism_NN1 (_( predicated_VVN largely_RR on_II that_DD1 of_IO Eugene_NP1 Lunn_NP1 )_) in_BCL21 order_BCL22 to_TO demonstrate_VVI that_CST the_AT latter_DA is_VBZ a_RR31 good_RR32 deal_RR33 more_RGR complex_JJ in_II31 respect_II32 of_II33 its_APPGE characteristic_JJ conceptions_NN2 of_IO the_AT subject_NN1 ,_, expression_NN1 ,_, reflexion_NN1 etc_RA ,_, than_CSN the_AT former_DA are_VBR wont_JJ to_TO have_VHI it_PPH1 ._. 
This_DD1 is_VBZ so_RR to_II the_AT extent_NN1 that_CST the_AT claim_NN1 for_IF a_AT1 structurally_RR distinct_JJ postmodernist_JJ mode_NN1 of_IO signification_NN1 breaks_VVZ down_RP in_II the_AT face_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 variety_NN1 of_IO historical_JJ avant-garde_JJ practices_NN2 ranging_VVG across_II Europe_NP1 from_II London_NP1 to_II Vienna_NP1 and_CC Moscow_NP1 in_II the_AT hands_NN2 of_IO such_II21 as_II22 Eliot_NP1 ,_, Joyce_NP1 ,_, the_AT Cubists_NN2 ,_, Surrealists_NN2 and_CC others_NN2 (_( including_VVG ,_, somewhat_RR surprisingly_RR ,_, Kokoschka_NP1 )_) ._. 
A_AT1 further_JJR set_NN1 of_IO more_RGR qualified_JJ or_CC at_RR21 least_RR22 less_RGR wholesale_RR more_RGR ambiguous_JJ claims_NN2 are_VBR then_RT encountered_VVN ,_, by_II authors_NN2 such_II21 as_II22 Lyotard_NP1 ,_, Jameson_NP1 and_CC Lash_NP1 ._. 
These_DD2 include_VV0 :_: the_AT postmodern_JJ as_II a_AT1 tendency_NN1 within_II the_AT modern_JJ ;_; a_AT1 notion_NN1 of_IO the_AT '_GE sublime_JJ '_GE and_CC postmodernism_NN1 's_GE related_JJ freedom_NN1 from_II dependence_NN1 on_II the_AT concept_NN1 of_IO totality_NN1 ;_; a_AT1 distinction_NN1 between_II the_AT postmodern_JJ conceived_VVN in_II31 terms_II32 of_II33 the_AT externalised_JJ and_CC impersonal_JJ as_II21 against_II22 a_AT1 view_NN1 of_IO the_AT modern_JJ as_CSA characterised_VVN by_II the_AT internal_JJ and_CC '_GE impressionist_NN1 '_GE ;_; and_CC a_AT1 claim_NN1 that_CST it_PPH1 is_VBZ the_AT characteristic_NN1 of_IO the_AT postmodern_JJ to_TO signify_VVI figurally_RR rather_II21 than_II22 discursively_RR (_( ?_? )_) ._. 
Callinicos_NP1 '_GE conclusion_NN1 to_II these_DD2 arguments_NN2 is_VBZ that_CST despite_II their_APPGE efforts_NN2 ,_, built_VVN around_II a_AT1 claimed_JJ contrast_NN1 of_IO the_AT postmodern_JJ either_RR with_IW or_CC within_II Modernism_NN1 ,_, these_DD2 authors_NN2 have_VH0 produced_VVN only_RR '_GE mutually_RR and_CC often_RR internally_RR inconsistent_JJ accounts_NN2 '_GE of_IO the_AT '_GE postmodern_JJ '_GE ,_, manifesting_VVG an_AT1 '_GE inability_NN1 to_TO come_VVI up_RP with_IW a_AT1 plausible_JJ and_CC coherent_JJ account_NN1 of_IO its_APPGE distinguishing_JJ characteristics_NN2 '_GE (_( p._NNU 28_MC )_) ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ in_II fact_NN1 Callinicos_NP2 '_GE later_JJR claim_NN1 that_CST ,_, rather_II21 than_II22 occupying_VVG a_AT1 qualitatively_RR distinct_JJ position_NN1 ,_, '_GE late_JJ capitalist_JJ culture_NN1 represents_VVZ a_AT1 continuation_NN1 of_IO trends_NN2 operative_JJ throughout_II this_DD1 century_NNT1 '_GE (_( p._NNU 53_MC )_) ._. 
The_AT second_MD main_JJ emphasis_NN1 of_IO Callinicos_NP2 '_GE critique_NN1 is_VBZ aimed_VVN at_II the_AT philosophy_NN1 most_RGT frequently_RR regarded_VVN as_CSA underpinning_VVG claims_NN2 for_IF the_AT distinction_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 postmodern_JJ culture_NN1 ,_, viz._REX poststructuralism_NN1 ._. 
Drawing_VVG on_II his_APPGE own_DA previous_JJ work_NN1 ,_, as_II31 well_II32 as_II33 that_DD1 of_IO Dews_NN2 and_CC Habermas_NP2 ,_, the_AT main_JJ thrust_NN1 is_VBZ initially_RR to_TO connect_VVI both_RR '_GE wings_NN2 '_GE of_IO poststructuralism_NN1 the_AT '_GE textualist_NN1 '_GE strand_NN1 associated_VVN with_IW Derrida_NP1 ,_, and_CC the_AT '_GE contextualist/historical_JJ strand_NN1 identified_VVN principally_RR with_IW Foucault_NN1 to_II the_AT Nietzschean_JJ philosophical_JJ tradition_NN1 ;_; and_CC then_RT to_TO isolate_VVI the_AT most_RGT common_JJ problems_NN2 attributed_VVN to_II that_DD1 tradition_NN1 to_II which_DDQ ,_, a_RR21 fortiori_RR22 ,_, post-structuralism_NN1 succumbs_VVZ ._. 
These_DD2 concern_VV0 :_: the_AT subject_NN1 ;_; the_AT issue_NN1 of_IO how_RGQ critical_JJ resistance_NN1 to_II dominant_JJ codes_NN2 ever_RR develops_VVZ in_II the_AT absence_NN1 of_IO an_AT1 adequate_JJ conception_NN1 of_IO the_AT subject_NN1 ;_; and_CC ,_, perhaps_RR most_RGT fundamentally_RR ,_, the_AT traditional_JJ problem_NN1 facing_VVG any_DD philosophy_NN1 seeking_VVG to_TO reduce_VVI knowledge_NN1 to_II interests_NN2 tout_JJ21 court_JJ22 ,_, of_IO using_VVG rational_JJ argument_NN1 to_TO prove_VVI the_AT limits_NN2 on_II rationality_NN1 ._. 
This_DD1 is_VBZ the_AT densest_JJT ,_, yet_RR at_II the_AT same_DA time_NNT1 one_MC1 of_IO the_AT most_RGT persuasive_JJ sections_NN2 of_IO the_AT book_NN1 ,_, wherein_RRQ a_AT1 variety_NN1 of_IO arguments_NN2 drawn_VVN from_II the_AT analytic_JJ tradition_NN1 are_VBR deployed_VVN against_II Nietzsche_NP1 's_GE lineage_NN1 :_: Quine_NN1 and_CC Davidson_NP1 on_II a_AT1 theory_NN1 of_IO meaning_VVG both_RR holistic_JJ and_CC realist_NN1 demonstrating_VVG that_CST there_EX are_VBR more_DAR ways_NN2 out_II21 of_II22 atomism_NN1 and_CC the_AT myths_NN2 of_IO the_AT given_JJ than_CSN Saussure_NP1 's_GE ;_; and_CC an_AT1 anti-relativist_JJ notion_NN1 of_IO truth_NN1 as_II a_AT1 '_GE regulative_JJ ideal_NN1 '_GE derived_VVN from_II Tarski_NP1 ,_, Popper_NN1 and_CC Lakatos_NN2 ._. 
There_EX is_VBZ no_AT space_NN1 here_RL ,_, central_JJ though_CS it_PPH1 is_VBZ to_II Callinicos_NP2 '_GE argument_NN1 as_II a_AT1 whole_NN1 ,_, to_TO do_VDI other_II21 than_II22 note_NN1 how_RRQ this_DD1 perspective_NN1 is_VBZ then_RT deployed_VVN not_XX only_RR to_II counter_NN1 poststructuralism_NN1 but_CCB also_RR significantly_RR to_TO modify_VVI the_AT position_NN1 of_IO its_APPGE main_JJ critic_NN1 ,_, Habermas_NP2 ._. 
If_CS Foucault_NP1 and_CC Derrida_NP1 are_VBR taken_VVN to_II task_NN1 for_IF their_APPGE Nietzschean_JJ lineage_NN1 ,_, Habermas_NP2 '_GE main_JJ weakness_NN1 is_VBZ deemed_VVN to_TO lie_VVI in_II his_APPGE Kantianism_NN1 ,_, manifest_VV0 in_II a_AT1 formalist_NN1 '_GE metaethics_NN1 '_GE ,_, and_CC his_APPGE conception_NN1 of_IO '_GE communicative_JJ rationality_NN1 '_GE grounded_JJ in_II the_AT consensual_JJ account_NN1 of_IO meaning_NN1 offered_VVN by_II speech-act_JJ theory_NN1 and_CC as_CSA such_DA likewise_RR vulnerable_JJ to_II Davidson_NP1 ,_, as_CSA well_RR as_II21 to_II22 Wittgenstein_NP1 ._. 
In_II essence_NN1 then_RT ,_, at_II this_DD1 philosophical_JJ level_NN1 ,_, Callinicos_NP2 is_VBZ marrying_VVG historical_JJ materialism_NN1 and_CC analytical_JJ philosophy_NN1 ,_, as_RR31 it_RR32 were_RR33 Marx_NP1 and_CC Wittgenstein_NP1 ,_, in_BCL21 order_BCL22 to_TO defeat_VVI a_AT1 range_NN1 of_IO new_JJ and_CC old_JJ Idealisms_NN2 :_: principally_RR that_DD1 tradition_NN1 ,_, dismissive_JJ of_IO Enlightenment_NN1 rationalism_NN1 ,_, descending_VVG from_II Nietzsche_NP1 via_II Heidegger_NP1 to_II a_AT1 bathetic_JJ end_NN1 in_II Lyotard_NP1 and_CC Baudrillard_NP1 ._. 
Compelling_JJ as_CSA it_PPH1 is_VBZ ,_, however_RR ,_, this_DD1 strategy_NN1 does_VDZ not_XX form_VVI the_AT conclusion_NN1 of_IO Callinicos_NP2 '_GE case_NN1 ._. 
The_AT third_MD main_JJ emphasis_NN1 in_II his_APPGE critique_NN1 of_IO the_AT concept_NN1 of_IO the_AT postmodern_JJ is_VBZ to_TO attempt_VVI to_TO explain_VVI the_AT hold_NN1 exercised_VVN by_II a_AT1 demonstrably_RR deficient_JJ theory_NN1 of_IO culture_NN1 and_CC its_APPGE dependence_NN1 on_II a_AT1 fundamentally_RR irrationalist_JJ philosophy_NN1 :_: which_DDQ is_VBZ to_TO say_VVI he_PPHS1 offers_VVZ a_AT1 politics_NN1 of_IO the_AT postmodern_JJ ._. 
There_EX are_VBR two_MC pillars_NN2 to_II this_DD1 account_NN1 :_: the_AT emergence_NN1 in_II the_AT post-war_JJ period_NN1 ,_, and_CC more_RGR particularly_RR in_II the_AT last_MD two_MC decades_NNT2 ,_, of_IO a_AT1 mass_JJ social_JJ layer_NN1 analysable_JJ under_II the_AT rubric_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 new_JJ middle_JJ class_NN1 though_CS internally_RR much_RR differentiated_VVN as_II31 well_II32 as_II33 distinct_JJ from_II a_AT1 traditional_JJ petite_JJ bourgeoisie_NN1 in_II31 respect_II32 of_II33 its_APPGE structured_JJ '_GE overconsumptionism_NN1 '_GE ._. 
And_CC secondly_RR ,_, the_AT defeat_NN1 of_IO the_AT last_MD major_JJ challenge_NN1 to_II the_AT system_NN1 associated_VVN with_IW the_AT overdetermined_JJ name_NN1 of_IO '_GE 1968_MC '_GE but_CCB finally_RR petering_VVG out_RP in_II the_AT mid-1970s_NN2 ._. 
The_AT latter_DA is_VBZ primary_JJ ;_; the_AT emergence_NN1 ,_, or_CC at_RR21 least_RR22 acceleration_NN1 ,_, of_IO the_AT former_DA a_AT1 consequence_NN1 of_IO measures_NN2 adopted_VVN by_II newly_RR confident_JJ conservative_NN1 states_VVZ to_TO cope_VVI with_IW the_AT re-entry_NN1 of_IO the_AT world_NN1 system_NN1 into_II a_AT1 succession_NN1 of_IO capitalist_JJ crises_NN2 after_II the_AT exhaustion_NN1 of_IO the_AT Long_JJ Boom_NN1 ._. 
This_DD1 kind_NN1 of_IO argument_NN1 reads_VVZ well_RR in_II Callinicos_NP2 '_GE hands_NN2 ,_, but_CCB it_PPH1 is_VBZ worth_II reminding_VVG ourselves_PPX2 of_IO the_AT unattractive_JJ reality_NN1 to_II which_DDQ it_PPH1 bears_VVZ witness_NN1 ._. 
A_AT1 real_JJ tragedy_NN1 has_VHZ taken_VVN place_NN1 ._. 
If_CS one_PN1 only_RR takes_VVZ educational_JJ institutions_NN2 such_II21 as_II22 universities_NN2 and_CC colleges_NN2 ,_, let_II21 alone_II22 the_AT world_NN1 outside_RL ,_, the_AT emancipatory_JJ impulse_NN1 of_IO the_AT sixties_MC2 and_CC early_JJ seventies_MC2 has_VHZ been_VBN turned_VVN inside_RL21 out_RL22 ._. 
What_DDQ began_VVD as_II a_AT1 compelling_JJ rejection_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 straitjacketing_JJ orthodoxy_NN1 made_VVD its_APPGE criticism_NN1 in_II31 terms_II32 of_II33 a_AT1 materialist_NN1 demand_VV0 that_CST the_AT socio-political_JJ locale_NN1 of_IO culture_NN1 be_VBI addressed_VVN ,_, in_II the_AT face_NN1 of_IO an_AT1 institutionalised_JJ aversion_NN1 to_II any_DD such_DA examination_NN1 conducted_VVN under_II a_AT1 self-serving_JJ misrepresentation_NN1 of_IO the_AT autonomy_NN1 of_IO art_NN1 ._. 
This_DD1 stance_NN1 has_VHZ now_RT been_VBN inverted_VVN by_II a_AT1 puritanical_JJ moralising_JJ clerisy_NN1 which_DDQ virtually_RR polices_VVZ conduct_NN1 and_CC enquiry_NN1 in_II the_AT name_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 postmodern_JJ triptych_NN1 as_CSA Terry_NP1 Eagleton_NP1 has_VHZ put_VVN it_PPH1 of_IO class_NN1 and_CC race_NN1 and_CC gender_NN1 ._. 
What_DDQ amounts_VVZ to_II a_AT1 fear_NN1 of_IO art_NN1 ,_, perpetrated_VVD under_II a_AT1 false_JJ rhetoric_NN1 of_IO care_NN1 and_CC defence_NN1 of_IO the_AT marginalised_JJ now_RT dominates_VVZ everything_PN1 this_DD1 oxymoronic_JJ '_GE radical_JJ orthodoxy_NN1 '_GE touches_NN2 ._. 
And_CC it_PPH1 touches_VVZ a_AT1 lot_NN1 ._. 
Making_VVG all_DB due_JJ allowance_NN1 for_IF the_AT return_NN1 of_IO historical_JJ tragedy_NN1 as_CSA farce_NN1 ,_, watching_VVG this_DD1 soporific_JJ monolith_NN1 of_IO the_AT virtuous_JJ rise_NN1 out_II21 of_II22 the_AT debris_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 liberating_JJ movement_NN1 is_VBZ akin_JJ to_II nothing_PN1 so_RR31 much_RR32 as_RR33 witnessing_VVG Bureaucracy_NN1 emerge_VV0 from_II the_AT ashes_NN2 of_IO Revolution_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ one_MC1 of_IO Callinicos_NP2 '_GE main_JJ concerns_NN2 to_TO relate_VVI the_AT constellation_NN1 of_IO ideas_NN2 and_CC cultural_JJ practices_NN2 trading_VVG under_II a_AT1 conception_NN1 of_IO the_AT postmodern_JJ condition_NN1 to_II an_AT1 inadequate_JJ and_CC escapist_NN1 politics_NN1 :_: the_AT claim_NN1 ,_, as_CSA one_MC1 of_IO his_APPGE own_DA critics_NN2 has_VHZ had_VHN it_PPH1 ,_, that_DD1 '_VBZ the_AT conditions_NN2 that_CST sustain_VV0 oppression_NN1 can_VM be_VBI altered_VVN piecemeal_RR '_GE (_( Patton_NP1 ,_, cited_VVD ,_, p._NN1 85_MC )_) ._. 
Callinicos_NN2 mordantly_RR comments_VVZ on_II the_AT descent_NN1 '_GE from_II revolutionary_JJ groupuscule_NN1 to_II single-issue_JJ campaigns_NN2 and_CC then_RT to_II social_JJ democracy_NN1 '_GE ._. 
In_II sum_NN1 then_RT ,_, while_CS acknowledging_VVG the_AT stature_NN1 of_IO some_DD elements_NN2 of_IO this_DD1 constellation_NN1 ,_, such_II21 as_II22 the_AT historical_JJ aspects_NN2 of_IO Foucault_NP1 's_GE work_NN1 or_CC the_AT critical_JJ lan_NN1 of_IO Fredric_NP1 Jameson_NP1 (_( not_XX to_TO mention_VVI the_AT giant_JJ figure_NN1 of_IO Habermas_NP2 )_) ,_, Callinicos_NP2 develops_VVZ a_AT1 root_NN1 and_CC branch_NN1 assault_NN1 on_II claims_NN2 for_IF the_AT cultural_JJ distinction_NN1 of_IO the_AT '_GE postmodern_JJ '_GE ,_, for_IF the_AT conceptual_JJ adequacy_NN1 of_IO its_APPGE theoretical_JJ base_NN1 ,_, and_CC above_II all_DB for_IF the_AT deleterious_JJ political_JJ consequences_NN2 of_IO adherence_NN1 to_II it_PPH1 ._. 
So_RG far_RR so_RG good_JJ ;_; or_CC one_PN1 might_VM almost_RR say_VVI ,_, so_RG unproblematic_JJ ._. 
Callinicos_NP1 mobilises_VVZ as_RG powerful_JJ a_AT1 body_NN1 of_IO argument_NN1 and_CC evidence_NN1 as_CSA is_VBZ readily_RR conceivable_JJ against_II a_AT1 variety_NN1 of_IO contemporary_JJ critics_NN2 and_CC theorists_NN2 whose_DDQGE claims_NN2 he_PPHS1 sees_VVZ ,_, with_IW justice_NN1 ,_, as_CSA a_AT1 trahison_NN1 des_NP1 clercs_NN2 ._. 
Thus_RR far_RR there_EX is_VBZ something_PN1 almost_RR conventional_JJ about_II the_AT book_NN1 's_GE stance_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ possible_JJ just_RR to_TO imagine_VVI a_AT1 relatively_RR orthodox_JJ artist_NN1 ,_, critic_NN1 or_CC historian_NN1 appreciating_VVG the_AT demolition_NN1 of_IO postmodernism_NN1 (_( if_CS not_XX the_AT evidence_NN1 of_IO late_JJ capitalism_NN1 's_GE corruption_NN1 and_CC decay_NN1 )_) ._. 
But_CCB this_DD1 is_VBZ not_XX the_AT argument_NN1 's_GE main_JJ thrust_NN1 ;_; and_CC it_PPH1 is_VBZ this_DD1 rather_RG elusive_JJ second_MD aspect_NN1 which_DDQ gives_VVZ the_AT book_NN1 its_APPGE definitive_JJ character_NN1 ._. 
'_GE Elusive_JJ '_GE is_VBZ n't_XX quite_RG the_AT word_NN1 ,_, however_RR ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ more_RRR a_AT1 matter_NN1 of_IO approaching_VVG the_AT book_NN1 's_GE arguments_NN2 from_II within_II a_AT1 milieu_NN1 of_IO relatively_RR academic_JJ contemporary_JJ art_NN1 theory_NN1 and_CC being_VBG unable_JK to_TO see_VVI the_AT wood_NN1 for_IF the_AT trees_NN2 ._. 
For_IF the_AT concomitant_JJ of_IO Callinicos_NP2 '_GE critique_NN1 of_IO postmodernism_NN1 is_VBZ not_XX ,_, as_CSA it_PPH1 would_VM be_VBI in_II half_DB a_AT1 hundred_NNO other_JJ cases_NN2 ,_, the_AT defence_NN1 of_IO modernism_NN1 ._. 
For_IF one_MC1 thing_NN1 ,_, Callinicos_NP2 goes_VVZ out_II21 of_II22 his_APPGE way_NN1 to_TO establish_VVI that_CST the_AT intellectual_JJ tradition_NN1 he_PPHS1 is_VBZ concerned_JJ to_II critique_NN1 is_VBZ itself_PPX1 most_RGT fruitfully_RR read_VVN ,_, not_XX as_II an_AT1 articulation_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 qualitatively_RR new_JJ postmodernism_NN1 ,_, but_CCB an_AT1 instance_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 Modernist-type_JJ response_NN1 ._. 
Thus_RR :_: '_GE poststructuralism_NN1 &lsqb;_( ..._... $_NN the_AT philosophical_JJ expression_NN1 of_IO Modernism_NN1 ,_, whose_DDQGE characteristic_JJ themes_NN2 were_VBDR indeed_RR announced_VVN by_II Nietzsche_NP1 '_GE (_( p._NNU 6_MC )_) ;_; Nietzsche_NP1 's_GE '_GE system_NN1 of_IO ideas_NN2 '_GE is_58 '_GE in_II many_DA2 respects_NN2 a_AT1 philosophical_JJ articulation_NN1 of_IO the_AT main_JJ themes_NN2 of_IO Modernism_NN1 '_GE (_( p._NNU 67_MC )_) ._. 
Callinicos_NN2 is_VBZ concerned_JJ to_TO give_VVI weight_NN1 to_II the_AT proposition_NN1 advanced_VVN by_II Franco_NP1 Moretti_NP1 in_II31 respect_II32 of_II33 Carl_NP1 Schmitt_NP1 ,_, that_CST it_PPH1 is_VBZ not_XX the_AT task_NN1 of_IO Marxism_NN1 to_TO defend_VVI Modernism_NN1 as_CS21 if_CS22 its_APPGE devices_NN2 were_VBDR '_GE inherently_RR subversive_JJ of_IO the_AT existing_JJ social_JJ order_NN1 '_GE (_( p._NNU 48_MC )_) ._. 
The_AT point_NN1 is_VBZ that_CST for_IF Callinicos_NN2 ,_, Nietzschean_JJ thought_NN1 is_VBZ an_AT1 instance_NN1 of_IO Romantic_JJ anti-capitalism_NN1 :_: that_DD1 form_NN1 of_IO refusal_NN1 of_IO the_AT implications_NN2 of_IO capitalist_JJ modernity_NN1 which_DDQ has_VHZ been_VBN present_JJ virtually_RR since_CS the_AT birth_NN1 of_IO that_DD1 condition_NN1 ,_, described_VVN by_II Michael_NP1 Lowy_NP1 as_II '_GE opposition_NN1 to_II capitalism_NN1 in_II the_AT name_NN1 of_IO pre-capitalist_JJ values_NN2 '_GE (_( cited_VVN p._NNU 67_MC )_) ._. 
The_AT consequence_NN1 of_IO this_DD1 is_VBZ that_DD1 Modernism_NN1 too_RR must_VM be_VBI a_AT1 form_NN1 of_IO romantic_JJ anti-capitalism_NN1 ,_, and_CC as_CSA such_DA one-sided_JJ and_CC vulnerable_JJ ._. 
The_AT principal_JJ weakness_NN1 of_IO both_DB2 the_AT modernist_JJ tradition_NN1 proper_JJ ,_, and_CC indeed_RR of_IO Nietzsche_NP1 himself_PPX1 is_VBZ ,_, for_IF Callinicos_NN2 ,_, their_APPGE aestheticism_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ as_RG well_JJ to_TO be_VBI clear_JJ on_II this_DD1 ._. 
Callinicos_NP1 '_GE defence_NN1 of_IO classical_JJ Marxism_NN1 ,_, of_IO historical_JJ materialism_NN1 ,_, is_VBZ in_II the_AT first_MD instance_NN1 deployed_VVN against_II a_AT1 postmodernism_NN1 which_DDQ has_VHZ come_VVN to_TO proclaim_VVI the_AT death_NN1 of_IO the_AT grand_JJ narrative_NN1 of_IO emancipation_NN1 and_CC the_AT need_NN1 for_IF a_AT1 new_JJ form_NN1 of_IO politics_NN1 not_XX constructed_VVN along_II the_AT lines_NN2 of_IO the_AT traditional_JJ left_JJ ._. 
This_DD1 defence_NN1 of_IO Marxism_NN1 carries_VVZ over_RP ,_, however_RR ,_, to_II a_AT1 critique_NN1 of_IO Modernism_NN1 itself_PPX1 :_: not_XX merely_RR for_IF the_AT fact_NN1 that_CST Nietzsche_NP1 attaches_58 '_GE importance_NN1 '_GE to_II art_NN1 but_II21 for_II22 the_AT further_JJR claim_NN1 ascribed_VVN to_II him_PPHO1 ,_, and_CC therefore_RR to_II Modernism_NN1 itself_PPX1 ,_, that_DD1 '_VBZ the_AT nature_NN1 of_IO aesthetic_JJ experience_NN1 contains_VVZ in_II nuce_NN1 the_AT form_NN1 of_IO understanding_VVG proper_JJ to_II the_AT world_NN1 itself_PPX1 (_( p._NNU 66_MC )_) ._. 
In_II the_AT end_NN1 ,_, that_REX21 is_REX22 ,_, Callinicos_NP2 pits_NN2 historical_JJ materialism_NN1 against_II not_XX merely_RR postmodernism_NN1 but_CCB ,_, following_VVG the_AT logic_NN1 that_CST the_AT latter_DA is_VBZ indistinguishable_JJ from_II Modernism_NN1 properly_RR conceived_VVN ,_, against_II Modernism_NN1 itself_PPX1 ._. 
Drawing_VVG largely_RR on_II the_AT Marshall_NP1 Berman/Perry_NP1 Anderson_NP1 debate_NN1 ,_, and_CC thereby_RR making_VVG of_IO Modernism_NN1 the_AT characteristic_JJ expression_NN1 of_IO the_AT experience_NN1 of_IO modernity_NN1 ,_, itself_PPX1 conceived_VVN as_II a_AT1 response_NN1 to_II capitalist_JJ modernisation_NN1 ,_, Callinicos_NP2 seems_VVZ to_TO want_VVI to_TO claim_VVI in_II essence_NN1 that_CST both_DB2 the_AT former_DA are_VBR partial_JJ in_II31 respect_II32 of_II33 the_AT fact_NN1 of_IO this_DD1 last_MD ._. 
Weber_NP1 's_GE conceptualisation_NN1 of_IO the_AT modern_JJ as_II a_AT1 process_NN1 of_IO structural_JJ differentiation_NN1 is_VBZ ,_, I_PPIS1 think_VV0 ,_, seen_VVN to_TO be_VBI echoed_VVN in_II Modernist_JJ claims_NN2 for_IF the_AT specificity_NN1 of_IO art_NN1 ._. 
Both_DB2 are_VBR then_RT held_VVN to_TO be_VBI deficient_JJ relative_II21 to_II22 Marx_NP1 's_GE conception_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 '_GE mode_NN1 of_IO production_NN1 '_GE within_II which_DDQ differentiation_NN1 can_VM be_VBI understood_VVN ,_, made_VVD intelligible_JJ and_CC ultimately_RR accountable_JJ to_II a_AT1 materialistically_RR grounded_VVN ethics_NN of_IO emancipation_NN1 rooted_VVN in_II a_AT1 conception_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 '_GE complex_NN1 '_GE totality_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ in_II31 connection_II32 with_II33 this_DD1 perspective_NN1 that_CST Callinicos_NN2 was_VBDZ concerned_JJ to_TO deny_VVI the_AT common_JJ conflation_NN1 by_II postmodernists_NN2 of_IO Modernism_NN1 with_IW the_AT Enlightenment_NN1 ._. 
From_II his_APPGE point_NN1 of_IO view_NN1 ,_, Modernism_NN1 as_II a_AT1 sub-species_NN of_IO romantic_JJ anti-capitalism_NN1 is_VBZ one_MC1 partial_JJ moment_NN1 in_II the_AT rejection_NN1 of_IO the_AT consequences_NN2 of_IO Enlightenment_NN1 properly_RR understood_VVD :_: understood_VVN ,_, that_REX21 is_REX22 ,_, in_II31 terms_II32 of_II33 a_AT1 Marxism_NN1 which_DDQ is_VBZ itself_PPX1 held_VVN out_RP as_II the_AT genuine_JJ heir_NN1 to_II the_AT Enlightenment_NN1 narrative_NN1 of_IO emancipation_NN1 and_CC its_APPGE romantic_JJ critique_NN1 ._. 
Here_RL lies_VVZ the_AT root_NN1 of_IO Callinicos_NP2 ,_, project_VV0 the_AT buttressing_NN1 of_IO Marxism_NN1 as_II the_AT '_GE true_JJ radicalisation_NN1 '_GE of_IO the_AT Enlightenment_NN1 ;_; and_CC here_RL I_PPIS1 suspect_VV0 lies_NN2 also_RR his_APPGE ultimate_JJ discomfort_NN1 with_IW Modernism_NN1 prone_JJ as_CSA it_PPH1 is_VBZ to_TO slip_VVI the_AT leash_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 guiding_JJ politics_NN1 and_CC dance_VV0 under_II the_AT less_RGR biddable_JJ star_NN1 of_IO the_AT Aesthetic_JJ ._. 
At_II this_DD1 point_NN1 Callinicos_NP2 has_VHZ to_TO be_VBI careful_JJ :_: it_PPH1 is_VBZ one_MC1 thing_NN1 to_TO dismiss_VVI the_AT claims_NN2 of_IO a_AT1 rootless_JJ postmodernism_NN1 ,_, wandering_VVG naked_JJ except_II21 for_II22 its_APPGE designer_NN1 trainers_NN2 across_II the_AT face_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 barren_JJ late_JJ capitalism_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ quite_RG another_DD1 also_RR to_TO offer_VVI a_AT1 wholesale_JJ refutation_NN1 of_IO Modernism_NN1 ._. 
And_CC Callinicos_NP2 is_VBZ aware_JJ of_IO this_DD1 :_: '_GE Is_VBZ not_XX the_AT general_JJ tendency_NN1 of_IO this_DD1 analysis_NN1 similar_JJ to_II Lukcs_NP2 '_GE celebrated_JJ denunciation_NN1 of_IO Modernism_NN1 as_58 '_GE aesthetically_RR appealing_JJ ,_, but_CCB decadent_NN1 '_GE ?_? (_( p._NNU 53_MC )_) ._. 
For_IF fairly_RR obvious_JJ reasons_NN2 ,_, mostly_RR no_RR21 doubt_RR22 connected_VVN with_IW the_AT spectre_NN1 of_IO Zhdanov_NP1 and_CC Socialist_JJ Realism_NN1 (_( but_CCB also_RR I_PPIS1 suspect_VV0 because_II21 of_II22 a_AT1 more_RGR subterranean_JJ philosophical_JJ linkage_NN1 between_II Callinicos_NP2 '_GE endorsement_NN1 of_IO Althusser_NP1 's_GE '_GE complex_JJ totality_NN1 '_GE against_II Lukcs_NP2 '_GE '_GE expressive_JJ totality_NN1 '_GE and_CC the_AT political_JJ voluntarism_NN1 which_DDQ it_PPH1 informed_VVD in_II the_AT early_JJ twenties_MC2 )_) ,_, Callinicos_NP2 has_VHZ to_TO answer_VVI :_: No_UH ._. 
This_DD1 begins_VVZ to_TO be_VBI interesting_JJ ,_, and_CC it_PPH1 is_VBZ I_PPIS1 think_VV0 the_AT originary_JJ focus_NN1 of_IO that_DD1 sense_NN1 of_IO misgiving_NN1 with_IW which_DDQ I_PPIS1 began_VVD ._. 
If_CS I_PPIS1 have_VH0 been_VBN primarily_RR expository_JJ hitherto_RT (_( and_CC I_PPIS1 have_VH0 been_VBN because_CS I_PPIS1 believe_VV0 Callinicos_NN2 '_GE book_NN1 to_TO be_VBI the_AT best_RRT on_II this_DD1 subject_NN1 that_CST we_PPIS2 have_VH0 )_) I_PPIS1 will_VM now_RT begin_VVI to_TO turn_VVI to_II criticism_NN1 ;_; or_CC at_RR21 least_RR22 to_II trying_VVG to_TO ventilate_VVI that_DD1 reservation_NN1 which_DDQ ,_, faced_VVN by_II Callinicos_NP2 ,_, certainty_NN1 ,_, will_VM not_XX be_VBI stilled_VVN ._. 
In_II a_AT1 sense_NN1 it_PPH1 does_VDZ n't_XX matter_VVI if_CSW Callinicos_NN2 '_GE defence_NN1 of_IO Marxism_NN1 is_VBZ registered_VVN or_CC not_XX by_II the_AT legion_NN1 of_IO Post-isms_NN2 and_CC -ists_NN2 which_DDQ form_VV0 the_AT undergrowth_NN1 of_IO contemporary_JJ cultural_JJ politics_NN1 ._. 
They_PPHS2 will_VM wither_VVI at_II the_AT first_MD frosts_NN2 anyway_RR ,_, if_CS they_PPHS2 come_VV0 ;_; and_CC if_CS they_PPHS2 do_VD0 n't_XX ..._... 
But_CCB with_IW his_APPGE placement_NN1 of_IO Modernism_NN1 in_II the_AT lineage_NN1 of_IO Nietzsche_NP1 ,_, and_CC as_CSA such_DA at_II odds_NN2 with_IW Marx_NP1 and_CC Freud_NP1 as_CSA the_AT real_JJ motors_NN2 of_IO that_DD1 '_VBZ true_JJ radicalisation_NN1 of_IO the_AT Enlightenment_NN1 '_GE (_( p._NNU 120_MC )_) which_DDQ is_VBZ the_AT only_JJ way_NN1 ahead_RL ,_, something_PN1 more_RGR serious_JJ is_VBZ at_II stake_NN1 ._. 
To_TO backtrack_VVI a_RR21 little_RR22 ,_, the_AT case_NN1 is_VBZ perhaps_RR not_XX so_RG monolithic_JJ as_CSA I_PPIS1 have_VH0 implied_VVN :_: for_IF which_DDQ we_PPIS2 have_VH0 to_TO return_VVI to_II the_AT detail_NN1 of_IO Callinicos_NP2 '_GE '_" No_UH '_GE to_II Lukcs_NP2 ._. 
On_II the_AT one_MC1 hand_NN1 and_CC this_DD1 is_VBZ a_AT1 point_NN1 to_II which_DDQ I_PPIS1 shall_VM return_VVI there_RL is_VBZ a_AT1 dual_JJ claim_NN1 against_II Lukcs_NP2 '_GE evolutionism_NN1 (_( to_II the_AT effect_NN1 that_CST different_JJ levels_NN2 of_IO a_AT1 social_JJ formation_NN1 are_VBR relatively_RR autonomous_JJ :_: crudely_RR ,_, if_CS bourgeois_JJ society_NN1 is_VBZ decadent_JJ this_DD1 does_VDZ not_XX necessarily_RR mean_VVI ,_, as_CSA Lukcs_NN2 thought_VVD it_PPH1 did_VDD ,_, that_CST its_APPGE art_NN1 is_VBZ too_RR )_) ,_, and_CC in_II31 favour_II32 of_II33 the_AT possibility_NN1 of_IO being_VBG able_JK to_TO pass_VVI a_AT1 positive_JJ '_GE aesthetic_JJ judgement_NN1 '_GE upon_II a_AT1 particular_JJ work_NN1 however_RGQV questionable_JJ the_AT general_JJ category_NN1 under_II which_DDQ it_PPH1 has_VHZ been_VBN produced_VVN (_( a_AT1 position_NN1 related_VVN to_II Brecht_NP1 's_GE polemic_NN1 against_II Lukcs_NP2 )_) ._. 
More_RGR empirically_RR however_RR ,_, on_II the_AT other_JJ hand_NN1 ,_, and_CC drawing_VVG upon_II the_AT work_NN1 of_IO Peter_NP1 Brger_NP1 ,_, Callinicos_NP2 accepts_VVZ the_AT case_NN1 for_IF Modernism_NN1 having_VHG contained_VVN a_AT1 critical_JJ moment_NN1 a_AT1 '_GE protest_NN1 against_II the_AT capitalist_JJ society_NN1 to_II which_DDQ it_PPH1 is_VBZ in_II complex_JJ ways_NN2 related_JJ '_GE (_( p._NNU 53_MC )_) ._. 
This_DD1 is_VBZ principally_RR indexed_VVN to_II the_AT claimed_JJ historical_JJ transformation_NN1 of_IO Modernism_NN1 into_II a_AT1 series_NN of_IO engaged_JJ avant-gardes_NN2 dedicated_VVD not_XX to_II the_AT aestheticisation_NN1 of_IO life_NN1 ,_, but_CCB to_II the_AT integration_NN1 of_IO art_NN1 into_II life_NN1 ._. 
As_CSA Brger_NP1 has_VHZ it_PPH1 :_: '_GE Aestheticism_NN1 had_VHD made_VVN the_AT distance_NN1 from_II the_AT praxis_NN1 of_IO life_NN1 the_AT content_NN1 of_IO works_NN ._. 
The_AT business_NN1 of_IO the_AT new_JJ configuration_NN1 was_VBDZ different_JJ :_: art_NN1 '_GE transferred_JJ to_II the_AT praxis_NN1 of_IO life_NN1 '_GE not_XX however_RR '_GE to_TO integrate_VVI art_NN1 into_II this_DD1 praxis_NN1 '_GE but_CCB '_GE the_AT attempt_NN1 to_TO organise_VVI a_AT1 new_JJ life_NN1 praxis_NN1 from_II a_AT1 basis_NN1 in_II art_NN1 '_GE (_( cited_VVN p._NNU 54_MC )_) ._. 
The_AT '_GE avant-garde_NN1 '_GE here_RL means_VVZ ,_, of_RR21 course_RR22 ,_, constructivism_NN1 ,_, surrealism_NN1 and_CC a_AT1 range_NN1 of_IO Weimar_NP1 practices_NN2 grouped_VVN by_II Callinicos_NP2 somewhat_RR misleadingly_RR under_II the_AT label_NN1 '_GE Neue_NP1 Sachlichkeit_NP1 '_GE ._. 
Just_RR how_RGQ remote_JJ this_DD1 stance_NN1 in_II fact_NN1 is_VBZ from_II the_AT aesthetic_JJ is_VBZ a_AT1 matter_NN1 for_IF further_JJR debate_NN1 ,_, but_CCB it_PPH1 is_VBZ perhaps_RR worth_II interpolating_VVG that_CST the_AT implied_JJ valorisation_NN1 of_IO the_AT products_NN2 of_IO these_DD2 engaged_JJ avant-gardes_NN2 as_II a_AT1 function_NN1 of_IO their_APPGE engagement_NN1 is_VBZ defeasible_JJ ._. 
Contra_NN1 Buchloh_NP1 et_RA21 al._RA22 ,_, as_II31 well_II32 as_II33 Callinicos_NP2 ,_, there_EX is_VBZ nothing_PN1 as_CS31 far_CS32 as_CS33 art_NN1 (_( as_CSA distinct_JJ from_II culture_NN1 or_CC politics_NN1 )_) is_VBZ concerned_JJ which_DDQ will_VM a_AT1 priori_NN2 privilege_VVI a_AT1 Tatlin_NP1 made_VVD in_II revolutionary_JJ Petrograd_NN1 from_II a_AT1 Matisse_NP1 painted_VVD in_II a_AT1 hotel_NN1 bedroom_NN1 on_II the_AT Riviera_NP1 Benjamin_NP1 on_II technique_NN1 notwithstanding_II (_( do_VD0 n't_XX forget_VVI :_: Benjamin_NP1 owned_VVD a_AT1 Klee_NN1 )_) ._. 
Be_VB0 that_DD1 as_CSA it_PPH1 may_VM ,_, these_DD2 avant-gardes_NN2 are_VBR held_VVN to_TO have_VHI a_AT1 '_GE distinctive_JJ character_NN1 '_GE which_DDQ resides_VVZ in_II their_APPGE '_GE seeking_VVG to_TO abolish_VVI the_AT separation_NN1 between_II art_NN1 and_CC life_NN1 '_GE ._. 
For_IF Callinicos_NN2 this_DD1 is_58 '_GE unquestionable_JJ '_GE ;_; as_CSA is_VBZ the_AT fact_NN1 that_CST the_AT shift_NN1 is_VBZ enabled_VVN by_II the_AT Bolshevik_JJ revolution_NN1 of_IO 1917_MC ._. 
(_( These_DD2 arguments_NN2 owe_VV0 much_RR to_II Perry_NP1 Anderson_NP1 's_GE location_NN1 of_IO the_AT tripartite_JJ enabling_JJ conditions_NN2 of_IO the_AT Modern_JJ movement_NN1 as_II :_: a_AT1 decrepit_JJ academicism_NN1 ;_; the_AT presence_NN1 of_IO new_JJ technologies_NN2 ;_; and_CC '_GE the_AT imaginative_JJ proximity_NN1 of_IO social_JJ revolution_NN1 '_GE ._. )_) 
For_IF Callinicos_NN2 it_PPH1 is_VBZ October_NPM1 which_DDQ made_VVD the_AT vision_NN1 of_IO social_JJ transformation_NN1 '_GE concrete_NN1 '_GE ._. 
The_AT downside_NN1 of_IO this_DD1 ,_, so_RR to_TO speak_VVI ,_, is_VBZ that_DD1 the_AT defeat_NN1 of_IO October_NPM1 's_GE aspirations_NN2 also_RR marks_VVZ the_AT avant-garde_NN1 's_GE defeat_NN1 ._. 
'_GE Between_II them_PPHO2 Stalinism_NN1 and_CC Nazism_NN1 destroyed_VVD the_AT avant_NN121 garde_NN122 ._. 
The_AT political_JJ defeats_NN2 of_IO the_AT 1930s_MC2 '_GE shipwreck_NN1 '_GE the_AT avant-garde_NN1 ,_, and_CC furthermore_RR ,_, through_II a_AT1 kind_NN1 of_IO extension_NN1 (_( since_CS one_PN1 assumes_VVZ Anderson_NP1 's_GE tripartite_JJ conjuncture_NN1 fuelled_VVD even_RR those_DD2 Modernist_JJ forms_NN2 which_DDQ did_VDD not_XX quite_RR take_VVI the_AT transformatory_JJ step_NN1 into_II engaged_JJ avant-gardism_NN1 )_) come_VV0 to_TO determine_VVI '_GE the_AT more_RGR general_JJ exhaustion_NN1 of_IO Modernism_NN1 '_GE ._. 
The_AT end_NN1 of_IO the_AT Second_MD World_NN1 War_NN1 is_VBZ marked_VVN by_II the_AT incipient_JJ commodification_NN1 of_IO social_JJ life_NN1 ,_, and_CC as_CSA such_DA '_GE the_AT disintegration_NN1 of_IO the_AT Modernist_JJ conjuncture_NN1 '_GE (_( pp._NNU2 60_MC 1_MC1 )_) ._. 
The_AT problem_NN1 then_RT begins_VVZ to_TO stand_VVI clear_JJ and_CC I_PPIS1 shall_VM now_RT have_VHI to_TO be_VBI brief_JJ and_CC schematic_JJ ._. 
Callinicos_NP1 drives_VVZ a_AT1 coach_NN1 and_CC horses_NN2 through_II postmodernism_NN1 ;_; well_RR and_CC good_JJ ._. 
But_CCB the_AT roads_NN2 on_II which_DDQ he_PPHS1 drives_VVZ it_PPH1 also_RR go_VV0 through_II most_DAT of_IO the_AT art_NN1 produced_VVN in_II the_AT last_MD half_DB century_NNT1 shall_VM we_PPIS2 say_VVI for_IF the_AT sake_NN1 of_IO convenience_NN1 ,_, since_CS the_AT death_NN1 of_IO Trotsky_NP1 ;_; or_CC in_II a_AT1 more_RGR apt_JJ frame_NN1 of_IO reference_NN1 ,_, since_CS Guernica_NP1 ?_? 
I_PPIS1 will_VM simply_RR have_VHI to_TO state_VVI the_AT case_NN1 dogmatically_RR ,_, but_CCB :_: this_DD1 is_VBZ untenable_JJ ._. 
All_DB of_IO Callinicos_NP2 '_GE philosophical_JJ sophistication_NN1 and_CC matchless_JJ political_JJ experience_NN1 evaporate_VV0 in_II the_AT face_NN1 of_IO the_AT art_NN1 of_IO his_APPGE own_DA lifetime_NNT1 ._. 
Aside_II21 from_II22 the_AT fact_NN1 that_CST he_PPHS1 does_VDZ n't_XX actually_RR discuss_VVI it_PPH1 in_II any_DD detail_NN1 ,_, there_EX is_VBZ little_DA1 more_DAR than_CSN a_AT1 disappointed_JJ huffing_NN1 and_CC puffing_JJ at_II the_AT exhaustion_NN1 of_IO the_AT avant-garde_NN1 's_GE shock_NN1 value_NN1 (_( backed_VVN up_RP by_II a_AT1 particularly_RR crass_JJ quotation_NN1 from_II Peter_NP1 Brger_NP1 about_II Duchamp_NP1 's_GE readymades_NN2 )_) and_CC some_DD utterly_RR routine_NN1 panting_VVG over_II the_AT outlandish_JJ prices_NN2 being_VBG currently_RR paid_VVN for_IF Van_NP1 Goghs_NP1 plus_II a_AT1 quotation_NN1 from_II a_AT1 sub-Warholian_JJ Manhattan_NP1 '_GE artist_NN1 '_GE answering_VVG an_AT1 art_NN1 magazine_NN1 questionnaire_NN1 with_IW a_AT1 few_DA2 smart_JJ remarks_NN2 about_II business_NN1 and_CC producing_VVG art_NN1 for_IF the_AT market_NN1 ._. 
As_CS21 if_CS22 this_DD1 were_VBDR adequate_JJ to_TO underwrite_VVI a_AT1 claim_NN1 for_IF the_AT avant-garde_NN1 's_GE loss_NN1 of_IO critical_JJ virtue_NN1 ._. 
In_II an_AT1 extraordinary_JJ passage_NN1 towards_II the_AT end_NN1 of_IO the_AT book_NN1 ,_, amplified_VVN in_II discussion_NN1 at_II Marxism_NN1 90_MC in_II a_AT1 debate_NN1 specifically_RR convened_VVN to_TO discuss_VVI Modernism_NN1 and_CC Postmodernism_NN1 ,_, Callinicos_NP2 described_VVD his_APPGE experience_NN1 of_IO walking_VVG around_RP an_AT1 art_NN1 gallery_NN1 :_: '_" I_PPIS1 have_VH0 often_RR been_VBN struck_VVN by_II the_AT tedium_NN1 that_CST overcomes_VVZ one_PN1 while_CS walking_VVG through_II a_AT1 gallery_NN1 of_IO twentieth-century_JJ painting_NN1 arranged_VVN in_II chronological_JJ order_NN1 as_CSA one_PN1 moves_VVZ from_II the_AT excitement_NN1 of_IO the_AT early_JJ part_NN1 of_IO the_AT century_NNT1 to_II the_AT desperate_JJ and_CC all_DB too_RG frequently_RR sterile_JJ iconoclasm_NN1 of_IO recent_JJ artists_NN2 '_GE (_( p._NNU 161_MC )_) ._. 
The_AT specifics_NN2 are_VBR n't_XX clear_JJ ,_, but_CCB the_AT contextual_JJ indications_NN2 are_VBR that_CST this_DD1 would_VM include_VVI American_JJ art_NN1 from_II say_NN1 ,_, Pollock_NP1 to_II Andr_NP1 ,_, not_XX to_TO mention_VVI a_AT1 range_NN1 of_IO contemporary_JJ work_NN1 on_II commodification_NN1 stemming_VVG from_II Warhol_NP1 ._. 
All_DB of_IO which_DDQ says_VVZ more_RRR about_II Callinicos_NP2 ,_, and_CC the_AT limits_NN2 on_II his_APPGE knowledge_NN1 and_CC interests_NN2 ,_, than_CSN it_PPH1 does_VDZ about_II the_AT work_NN1 ._. 
Whither_RRQ Brecht_NP1 now_RT ,_, on_II the_AT lure_NN1 of_IO the_AT good_JJ old_JJ days_NNT2 ;_; not_XX to_TO mention_VVI the_AT nostalgia_NN1 laid_VVN at_II the_AT door_NN1 of_IO romantic_JJ anti-capitalism_NN1 ?_? 
I_PPIS1 shall_VM conclude_VVI briefly_RR ._. 
The_AT point_NN1 is_VBZ I_PPIS1 think_VV0 that_CST the_AT argument_NN1 from_II here_RL can_VM go_VVI two_MC ways_NN2 ._. 
The_AT first_MD response_NN1 is_VBZ that_CST it_PPH1 does_VDZ n't_XX matter_VVI very_RG much_DA1 ._. 
Callinicos_NN2 ,_, defence_NN1 of_IO Marxism_NN1 is_VBZ erudite_JJ and_CC compelling_JJ ,_, and_CC the_AT fact_NN1 that_CST he_PPHS1 runs_VVZ out_II21 of_II22 steam_NN1 over_II post-war_JJ art_NN1 is_VBZ of_IO less_DAR moment_NN1 than_CSN the_AT fact_NN1 that_CST he_PPHS1 takes_VVZ the_AT range_NN1 of_IO issues_NN2 seriously_RR enough_RR to_TO discuss_VVI them_PPHO2 at_RR21 all_RR22 ._. 
Most_DAT sociologists_NN2 ,_, economists_NN2 and_CC politicians_NN2 ,_, after_II all_DB ,_, do_VD0 n't_XX get_VVI that_RG far_RR ._. 
The_AT second_MD road_NN1 is_VBZ however_RR rockier_JJR ;_; and_CC it_PPH1 is_VBZ an_AT1 undecided_JJ question_NN1 whether_CSW its_APPGE implications_NN2 are_VBR depressing_JJ and_CC frightening_JJ ,_, or_CC challenging_JJ and_CC exhilarating_JJ ._. 
Callinicos_NN2 is_VBZ very_RG careful_JJ to_TO say_VVI ,_, in_II at_RR21 least_RR22 two_MC places_NN2 in_II the_AT book_NN1 ,_, that_DD1 aesthetic_JJ judgement_NN1 as_II21 to_II22 the_AT value_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 work_NN1 of_IO art_NN1 is_VBZ at_RR21 least_RR22 relatively_RR independent_JJ of_IO the_AT cultural_JJ and_CC philosophical_JJ critique_NN1 of_IO the_AT bases_NN2 from_II which_DDQ it_PPH1 proceeds_VVZ ._. 
Thus_RR ,_, in_II his_APPGE discussion_NN1 of_IO Modernism_NN1 relative_II21 to_II22 Lukcs_NP2 and_CC Brecht_NP1 :_: '_" to_TO highlight_VVI the_AT fact_NN1 that_CST Modernism_NN1 shares_NN2 with_IW Romanticism_NN1 a_AT1 '_GE subjectified_JJ occasionalism_NN1 ,_, is_VBZ not_XX thereby_RR to_TO pass_VVI a_AT1 negative_JJ aesthetic_JJ judgement_NN1 on_II the_AT works_NN of_IO art_NN1 grouped_VVD together_RL under_II the_AT former_DA label_NN1 ._. 
Brecht_NP1 's_GE polemic_NN1 (_( i.e._REX against_II Lukcs_NP2 )_) &lsqb;_( ..._... &rsqb;_) retains_VVZ all_DB its_APPGE force_NN1 today_RT '_GE (_( p._NNU 53_MC )_) ._. 
And_CC again_RT propos_NN2 Postmodernism_NN1 :_: '_GE Nor_CC does_VDZ the_AT argument_NN1 set_VVN out_RP in_II this_DD1 section_NN1 imply_VV0 the_AT dismissal_NN1 of_IO all_DB recent_JJ works_NN including_II those_DD2 described_VVN as_II '_GE Postmodern_JJ '_GE as_RG worthless_JJ rubbish_NN1 ._. 
Good_JJ art_NN1 can_VM be_VBI produced_VVN in_II an_AT1 immense_JJ variety_NN1 of_IO different_JJ conditions_NN2 '_GE (_( p._NNU 161_MC )_) ._. 
This_DD1 magnanimity_NN1 is_VBZ precisely_RR the_AT problem_NN1 ._. 
The_AT traffic_NN1 is_VBZ all_RR one_MC1 way_NN1 ._. 
Callinicos_NP1 appears_VVZ to_TO think_VVI that_CST he_PPHS1 can_VM detect_VVI '_GE aesthetic_JJ merit_NN1 '_GE from_II the_AT position_NN1 given_VVN to_II him_PPHO1 by_II his_APPGE politics_NN1 ;_; politics_NN1 ,_, writ_VVN large_JJ ,_, as_CSA embodying_VVG an_AT1 ethics_NN and_CC a_AT1 philosophy_NN1 ,_, is_VBZ the_AT active_JJ force_NN1 ._. 
Thus_RR post-Second_NNU World_NN1 War_NN1 art_NN1 is_VBZ as_CSA it_PPH1 is_VBZ with_IW an_AT1 '_GE emphasis_NN1 on_II the_AT autonomous_JJ and_CC abstract_JJ work_NN1 of_IO art_NN1 '_GE (_( p._NNU 154_MC )_) allegedly_RR because_II21 of_II22 the_AT '_GE effects_NN2 '_GE of_IO the_AT stabilisation_NN1 and_CC extension_NN1 of_IO capitalism_NN1 ._. 
Cause_VV0 and_CC effect_NN1 :_: what_DDQ took_VVD place_NN1 was_VBDZ a_AT1 '_GE flight_NN1 into_II abstraction_NN1 '_GE ._. 
This_DD1 is_VBZ a_AT1 language_NN1 ,_, a_AT1 world_NN1 view_NN1 ,_, a_AT1 form_NN1 of_IO life_NN1 perhaps_RR ,_, wherein_RRQ one_MC1 of_IO the_AT principal_JJ reasons_NN2 for_IF according_VVG praise_NN1 to_II a_AT1 type_NN1 of_IO art_NN1 is_VBZ that_CST it_PPH1 is_VBZ able_JK to_TO give_VVI voice_NN1 to_II a_AT1 politics_NN1 ;_; Bolshevism_NN1 in_II the_AT main_JJ case_NN1 ,_, though_CS as_CSA Callinicos_NN2 acknowledges_VVZ ,_, one_MC1 of_IO the_AT salient_JJ points_NN2 about_II Modernism_NN1 was_VBDZ its_58 '_GE ambiguity_NN1 ,_, its_APPGE capacity_NN1 to_TO express_VVI a_AT1 variety_NN1 of_IO different_JJ political_JJ positions_NN2 '_GE ;_; that_REX21 is_REX22 ,_, when_CS it_PPH1 was_VBDZ not_XX engaged_VVN on_II its_APPGE more_RGR usual_JJ '_GE flight_NN1 from_II politics_NN1 '_GE (_( p._NNU 161_MC )_) ._. 
Art_NN1 ,_, it_PPH1 seems_VVZ ,_, is_VBZ the_AT perpetual_JJ recidivist_NN1 ,_, always_RR ducking_VVG back_RP into_II the_AT aesthetic_JJ as_CS31 soon_CS32 as_CS33 vigilant_JJ life_NN1 averts_VVZ its_APPGE gaze_NN1 ._. 
When_CS times_NNT2 are_VBR bad_JJ and_CC reactionary_JJ commodification_NN1 sets_VVZ in_RP ,_, the_AT deleterious_JJ upshot_NN1 is_58 '_GE the_AT recuperation_NN1 of_IO the_AT avant-garde_NN1 for_IF art_NN1 '_GE (_( p._NNU 157_MC )_) ._. 
When_RRQ things_NN2 are_VBR on_II the_AT up_RP and_CC the_AT lodestar_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 transformatory_JJ politics_NN1 shines_VVZ bright_JJ ,_, so_RR too_RG does_58 '_GE the_AT avant-garde_JJ project_NN1 of_IO overcoming_VVG the_AT separation_NN1 of_IO art_NN1 and_CC life_NN1 '_GE (_( p._NNU 171_MC )_) ._. 
In_II this_DD1 perspective_NN1 it_PPH1 seems_VVZ that_CST Callinicos_NN2 can_VM only_RR mean_VVI relatively_RR little_JJ with_IW his_APPGE disclaimers_NN2 about_II good_JJ art_NN1 ._. 
The_AT individual_NN1 '_GE good_JJ '_GE work_NN1 might_VM get_VVI thrown_VVN up_RP ,_, however_RGQV unpropitious_JJ the_AT circumstance_NN1 ._. 
But_CCB it_PPH1 can_VM only_RR be_VBI a_AT1 quirk_NN1 ;_; and_CC the_AT force_NN1 of_IO its_58 '_GE goodness_NN1 '_GE is_VBZ strictly_RR limited_VVN and_CC circumscribed_VVN ._. 
Only_RR once_RR ,_, in_II a_AT1 fleeting_JJ reference_NN1 to_II Matisse_NP1 is_VBZ there_EX a_AT1 sense_NN1 of_IO the_AT boot_NN1 being_VBG on_II the_AT other_JJ foot_NN1 ,_, of_IO art_NN1 offering_VVG a_AT1 sense_NN1 of_IO liberation_NN1 from_II social_JJ ideology_NN1 ._. 
But_CCB even_RR this_DD1 is_VBZ done_VDN in_II the_AT name_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 supposed_JJ '_GE immediate_JJ sensuous_JJ charge_NN1 '_GE rather_II21 than_II22 any_DD more_DAR extended_VVN critical_JJ capacity_NN1 of_IO art_NN1 or_CC the_AT aesthetic_JJ ._. 
Of_RR21 course_RR22 ,_, the_AT whole_JJ thrust_NN1 of_IO the_AT historic_JJ avant-garde_NN1 ,_, and_CC particularly_RR its_APPGE celebration_NN1 here_RL ,_, lies_VVZ in_II its_APPGE being_VBG associated_VVN with_IW a_AT1 liberation_NN1 from_II bourgeois_JJ ideology_NN1 ;_; but_CCB this_DD1 is_VBZ not_XX quite_RG the_AT same_DA as_CSA having_VHG your_APPGE revolutionary_JJ commitments_NN2 tested_VVN by_II your_APPGE aesthetic_JJ judgement_NN1 ._. 
For_IF by_RR21 far_RR22 the_AT greater_JJR part_NN1 ,_, the_AT aesthetic_JJ is_VBZ bracketed_VVN in_II the_AT name_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 robust_JJ historical_JJ materialism_NN1 ._. 
And_CC there_EX is_VBZ no_AT room_NN1 for_IF doubt_NN1 as_II21 to_II22 which_DDQ is_VBZ the_AT tail_NN1 ,_, and_CC which_DDQ the_AT dog_NN1 ._. 
Walter_NP1 Benjamin_NP1 once_RR implied_VVN something_PN1 rather_RG different_JJ ._. 
Speaking_VVG against_II social_JJ realism_NN1 in_II '_GE The_AT Author_NN1 as_CSA Producer_NN1 '_GE ,_, he_PPHS1 identifies_VVZ a_AT1 work_NN1 's_VBZ '_GE political_JJ tendency_NN1 '_GE and_CC its_58 '_GE literary_JJ tendency_NN1 '_GE ._. 
The_AT relationship_NN1 he_PPHS1 postulates_VVZ is_VBZ not_XX one-way_JJ traffic_NN1 ;_; it_PPH1 is_VBZ dialectical_JJ ._. 
A_AT1 work_NN1 '_GE can_NN1 only_RR be_VBI politically_RR correct_JJ if_CS it_PPH1 is_VBZ also_RR literarily_RR correct_JJ '_GE ._. 
I_PPIS1 take_VV0 this_DD1 to_TO mean_VVI that_CST there_EX is_VBZ an_AT1 equality_NN1 ,_, a_AT1 reciprocity_NN1 between_II the_AT aesthetic_JJ and_CC the_AT political_JJ such_CS21 that_CS22 an_AT1 aesthetic_JJ dimension_NN1 or_CC response_NN1 can_VM give_VVI the_AT lie_NN1 to_II a_AT1 political_JJ claim_NN1 ._. 
The_AT point_NN1 of_IO Benjamin_NP1 's_GE article_NN1 seems_VVZ to_TO be_VBI to_II decentre_NN1 the_AT political_JJ ,_, or_CC at_RR21 least_RR22 to_II subject_NN1 it_PPH1 to_TO test_VVI ,_, to_TO remove_VVI those_DD2 making_VVG claims_NN2 for_IF their_APPGE political_JJ correctness_NN1 from_II their_APPGE habitual_JJ position_NN1 of_IO judge_NN1 and_CC jury_NN1 :_: such_CS21 that_CS22 the_AT art_NN1 can_VM ,_, in_II principle_NN1 ,_, sort_VV0 out_RP the_AT politics_NN1 ,_, and_CC not_XX just_RR vice_RR21 versa_RR22 ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ this_DD1 ,_, in_II the_AT end_NN1 ,_, which_DDQ I_PPIS1 find_VV0 disquieting_JJ about_II Callinicos_NP2 '_GE book_NN1 ._. 
Not_XX the_AT vapidity_NN1 of_IO the_AT postmodern_JJ which_DDQ it_PPH1 reveals_VVZ ._. 
But_CCB the_AT way_NN1 in_II which_DDQ the_AT very_JJ limits_NN2 of_IO its_APPGE historical_JJ materialism_NN1 (_( which_DDQ I_PPIS1 take_VV0 to_TO be_VBI the_AT most_RGT developed_JJ statement_NN1 of_IO the_AT case_NN1 available_JJ in_II English_NN1 )_) put_VVD back_RP on_II the_AT agenda_NN1 questions_NN2 one_PN1 had_VHD considered_VVN closed_JJ ._. 
The_AT critique_NN1 of_IO Nietzsche_NP1 's_GE apocalyptic_JJ aestheticism_NN1 ,_, with_IW its_APPGE injunction_NN1 to_TO build_VVI your_APPGE dwelling_NN1 on_II the_AT slopes_NN2 of_IO Vesuvius_NP1 ,_, just_RR can_VM not_XX be_VBI reduced_VVN to_II the_AT clich_NN1 about_II Baudrillard_NP1 fiddling_JJ while_CS Rome_NP1 burns_VVZ with_IW which_DDQ the_AT book_NN1 closes_VVZ ._. 
(_( Is_VBZ it_PPH1 anyway_RR such_DA a_AT1 bad_JJ thing_NN1 to_TO make_VVI music_NN1 while_CS Atlantis_NP1 sinks_NN2 and_CC cities_NN2 evaporate_VV0 ?_? 
At_RR21 least_RR22 you_PPY would_VM have_VHI to_TO be_VBI a_AT1 doctor_NN1 to_TO say_VVI so_RR ,_, and_CC not_XX a_AT1 politician_NN1 or_CC an_AT1 academic_JJ ._. )_) 
A_AT1 requirement_NN1 to_TO minimise_VVI ,_, even_RR to_TO trivialise_VVI the_AT aesthetic_JJ one_PN1 might_VM almost_RR say_VVI ,_, a_AT1 fear_NN1 of_IO the_AT aesthetic_JJ is_VBZ the_AT hollowness_NN1 at_II the_AT heart_NN1 of_IO historical_JJ materialism_NN1 as_CSA it_PPH1 is_VBZ defended_VVN here_RL ._. 
There_EX is_VBZ obviously_RR a_AT1 problem_NN1 concerning_II the_AT subjective_JJ dimension_NN1 of_IO the_AT aesthetic_JJ ._. 
But_CCB a_AT1 tame_JJ aesthetic_JJ is_VBZ no_AT friend_NN1 of_IO historical_JJ materialism_NN1 ._. 
Art_NN1 has_VHZ to_TO be_VBI more_DAR than_CSN an_AT1 ornament_NN1 ,_, or_CC a_AT1 reinforcement_NN1 ._. 
There_EX has_VHZ to_TO be_VBI the_AT possibility_NN1 that_CST the_AT politics_NN1 can_VM be_VBI put_VVN at_II risk_NN1 by_II the_AT aesthetics_NN1 ,_, or_CC the_AT relationship_NN1 as_II31 well_II32 as_II33 each_DD1 of_IO its_APPGE components_NN2 will_VM be_VBI inert_JJ ._. 
An_AT1 unpredictable_JJ aesthetic_JJ ,_, it_PPH1 could_VM be_VBI said_VVN ,_, is_VBZ a_AT1 requirement_NN1 of_IO an_AT1 historical_JJ materialism_NN1 adequate_JJ to_II its_APPGE political_JJ task_NN1 ._. 
If_CS the_AT aesthetic_JJ is_VBZ genuinely_RR to_TO have_VHI reciprocal_JJ leverage_NN1 upon_II the_AT political_JJ ,_, certain_JJ problems_NN2 have_VH0 to_TO be_VBI faced_VVN ._. 
For_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, what_DDQ goes_VVZ on_RP when_CS looking_VVG at_II ,_, say_VV0 ,_, a_AT1 Matisse_NP1 in_II an_AT1 art_NN1 gallery_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ easy_JJ to_TO say_VVI that_CST the_AT time_NNT1 spent_VVN considering_II the_AT Matisse_NP1 is_VBZ time_NNT1 better_RRR spent_VVN than_CSN that_DD1 spent_VVD considering_II a_AT1 Gerasimov_NP1 ,_, let_II21 alone_II22 a_AT1 Bouguereau_NN1 ._. 
(_( It_PPH1 is_VBZ a_AT1 terminal_JJ problem_NN1 with_IW the_AT race_NN1 n'class_NN1 n'gender_NN1 triptych_VV0 that_CST all_DB these_DD2 transactions_NN2 are_VBR equivalently_RR sociological_JJ ._. )_) 
But_CCB what_DDQ of_IO time_NNT1 spent_VVN otherwise_RR ?_? 
How_RRQ to_TO adjudicate_VVI ?_? 
The_AT problem_NN1 of_RR21 course_RR22 goes_VVZ inescapably_RR to_II a_AT1 notion_NN1 of_IO the_AT quality_NN1 of_IO experience_NN1 (_( though_CS what_DDQ we_PPIS2 are_VBR calling_VVG the_AT aesthetic_JJ here_RL is_VBZ not_XX ,_, or_CC not_XX only_RR ,_, a_AT1 question_NN1 of_IO intensity_NN1 )_) ._. 
The_AT relationship_NN1 between_II ,_, say_VV0 ,_, reading_VVG an_AT1 article_NN1 in_II Socialist_JJ Review_NN1 on_II the_AT bureaucracy_NN1 's_GE pursuit_NN1 of_IO revenge_NN1 on_II Arthur_NP1 Scargill_NP1 ,_, and_CC what_DDQ it_PPH1 is_VBZ that_CST can_VM be_VBI got_VVN from_II staring_VVG at_II Rembrandt_NP1 's_GE nose_NN1 in_II a_AT1 late_JJ self-portrait_NN1 just_RR is_VBZ open_JJ ._. 
One_PN1 is_VBZ not_XX a_RR21 priori_RR22 more_RGR important_JJ than_CSN the_AT other_JJ ._. 
Which_DDQ is_VBZ also_RR to_TO say_VVI that_CST it_PPH1 is_VBZ not_XX the_AT case_NN1 that_CST there_EX is_VBZ no_AT connection_NN1 ,_, or_CC that_CST a_AT1 category_NN1 mistake_NN1 is_VBZ involved_JJ in_II the_AT mere_JJ comparison_NN1 ._. 
The_AT information_NN1 about_II Arthur_NP1 should_VM bear_VVI upon_II how_RRQ one_PN1 regards_VVZ the_AT Rembrandt_NP1 ._. 
But_CCB the_AT way_NN1 Rembrandt_NP1 's_GE nose_NN1 is_VBZ worked_VVN should_VM equally_RR provide_VVI a_AT1 corrective_NN1 to_II rhetoric_NN1 or_CC elision_NN1 in_II the_AT writing_NN1 on_II bureaucracy_NN1 ._. 
Which_DDQ is_VBZ to_TO say_VVI ,_, the_AT political_JJ commentary_NN1 is_VBZ a_AT1 form_NN1 of_IO writing_NN1 ._. 
Or_CC ,_, to_TO use_VVI an_AT1 unfashionable_JJ term_NN1 in_II these_DD2 linguistic_JJ days_NNT2 ,_, of_IO thought_NN1 ._. 
And_CC it_PPH1 is_VBZ of_IO the_AT utmost_JJ importance_NN1 to_TO realise_VVI that_CST the_AT pragmatic_JJ answer_NN1 to_II these_DD2 questions_NN2 is_VBZ itself_PPX1 what_DDQ makes_VVZ the_AT revolution_NN1 never_RR happen_VV0 ._. 
Which_DDQ latter_DA is_VBZ not_XX however_RR to_TO say_VVI that_DD1 '_VBZ correct_JJ thinking_NN1 '_GE overturns_VVZ society_NN1 ._. 
Thought_NN1 and_CC organisation_NN1 ,_, or_CC aesthetics_NN1 and_CC politics_NN1 ,_, must_VM circle_VVI each_PPX221 other_PPX222 warily_RR ,_, the_AT one_PN1 never_RR letting_VVG the_AT other_JJ out_II21 of_II22 its_APPGE sight_NN1 ._. 
The_AT abyss_NN1 which_DDQ all_DB this_DD1 opens_VVZ up_RP is_VBZ ,_, perhaps_RR ,_, terrifying_VVG before_CS it_PPH1 is_58 '_GE depressing_JJ '_GE ._. 
I_PPIS1 have_VH0 mentioned_VVN Walter_NP1 Benjamin_NP1 here_RL ._. 
Callinicos_NP1 concludes_VVZ his_APPGE book_NN1 by_II invoking_VVG the_AT memory_NN1 of_IO Benjamin_NP1 to_II the_AT effect_NN1 that_CST socialist_JJ revolution_NN1 in_II the_AT form_NN1 of_IO an_AT1 irruption_NN1 into_II history_NN1 is_VBZ the_AT secular_JJ vehicle_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 redemption_NN1 hitherto_RT conceivable_JJ only_RR in_II mystic_JJ terms_NN2 ._. 
For_IF Callinicos_NN2 it_PPH1 is_VBZ a_AT1 belief_NN1 in_II this_DD1 possibility_NN1 ,_, and_CC that_CST alone_RR ,_, which_DDQ remainders_NN2 melancholy_NN1 and_CC irony_NN1 that_REX41 is_REX42 to_REX43 say_REX44 ,_, Modernism_NN1 as_II an_AT1 adequate_JJ response_NN1 to_II modern_JJ life_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ the_AT consequence_NN1 presumably_RR unintended_JJ of_IO his_APPGE argument_NN1 ,_, however_RR ,_, that_CST it_PPH1 demonstrates_VVZ so_RG irrevocably_RR how_RGQ much_RR this_DD1 is_VBZ a_AT1 matter_NN1 of_IO commitment_NN1 and_CC as_CSA such_DA beyond_II the_AT reach_NN1 of_IO proof_NN1 ._. 
One_PN1 could_VM say_VVI that_CST the_AT pressing_JJ question_NN1 is_VBZ how_RRQ it_PPH1 is_VBZ possible_JJ to_TO live_VVI ,_, rather_II21 than_II22 what_DDQ teleology_NN1 to_TO adopt_VVI ;_; or_CC at_RR21 least_RR22 that_CST the_AT latter_DA does_VDZ not_XX sort_VVI the_AT former_DA out_RP ._. 
Benjamin_NP1 remarked_VVD ,_, tellingly_RR ,_, that_CST it_PPH1 is_VBZ less_RRR a_AT1 question_NN1 of_IO what_DDQ a_AT1 man_NN1 's_GE beliefs_NN2 are_VBR than_CSN the_AT kind_NN1 of_IO man_NN1 those_DD2 beliefs_NN2 make_VV0 of_IO him_PPHO1 ._. 
This_DD1 is_VBZ no_AT less_RRR an_AT1 aesthetic_JJ matter_NN1 than_CSN a_AT1 political_JJ one_PN1 ._. 
Callinicos_NN2 ,_, in_II his_APPGE haste_NN1 to_TO counter_VVI aestheticism_NN1 ,_, reduces_VVZ the_AT aesthetic_JJ ._. 
He_PPHS1 has_VHZ to_TO ._. 
Yet_RR the_AT aesthetic_JJ will_VM not_XX be_VBI reduced_VVN ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ not_XX the_AT means_NN to_II an_AT1 end_NN1 conceived_VVD elsewhere_RL :_: but_CCB an_AT1 '_GE as_CS21 if_CS22 '_GE ,_, no_AT less_RGR substantial_JJ than_CSN the_AT as_CS21 if_CS22 of_IO revolution_NN1 itself_PPX1 ._. 
Value_NN1 ,_, you_PPY say_VV0 ?_? 
Pushkin_NN1 eating_NN1 cherries_NN2 before_II a_AT1 duel_NN1 ;_; Lenin_NP1 working_VVG day_NNT1 in_II day_NNT1 out_RP on_II Iskra_NP1 ;_; one_MC1 sentence_NN1 or_CC a_AT1 newspaper_NN1 (_( the_AT point_NN1 is_VBZ of_RR21 course_RR22 ,_, not_XX one_PN1 without_IW the_AT other_JJ )_) ;_; Benjamin_NP1 on_II the_AT requirement_NN1 to_TO denature_VVI your_APPGE work_NN1 '_GE like_JJ ethyl_NN1 alcohol_NN1 '_GE lest_CS it_PPH1 be_VBI of_IO use_NN1 to_II the_AT other_JJ side_NN1 ._. 
For_IF revolutions_NN2 may_VM occur_VVI ,_, but_CCB the_AT belief_NN1 that_CST they_PPHS2 will_VV0 does_VDZ not_XX of_IO itself_PPX1 ensure_VV0 a_AT1 better_JJR lived_VVD life_NN1 ._. 
As_II21 to_II22 truth_NN1 and_CC beauty_NN1 the_AT truth_NN1 can_VM doubtless_RR be_VBI beautiful_JJ ,_, though_CS it_PPH1 need_VM not_XX be_VBI ._. 
Certain_JJ kinds_NN2 of_IO one-way_JJ traffic_NN1 ,_, certain_JJ kinds_NN2 of_IO one-way_JJ street_NN1 ,_, are_VBR in_II the_AT end_NN1 not_XX hard_RR to_TO negotiate_VVI ._. 
Their_APPGE avoidance_NN1 may_VM be_VBI more_RGR difficult_JJ by_RR21 far_RR22 ._. 
And_CC there_EX is_VBZ always_RR the_AT possibility_NN1 the_AT necessity_NN1 ?_? that_DD1 beauty_NN1 can_VM be_VBI its_APPGE own_DA truth_NN1 ._. 
Like_II taking_VVG poison_NN1 on_II the_AT border_NN1 ._. 
THE_AT ART_NN1 OF_IO SCIENCE_NN1 GEOFFREY_NP1 CANTOR_NP1 The_AT Science_NN1 of_IO Art_NN1 :_: Optical_JJ Themes_NN2 in_II Western_JJ Art_NN1 from_II Brunelleschi_NN1 to_II Seurat_NN1 ,_, Martin_NP1 Kemp_NP1 ,_, Yale_NP1 University_NN1 Press_NN1 ,_, New_NP1 Haven_NP1 and_CC London_NP1 ,_, 1990._MC pp._NNU2 viii_MC 375_MC ;_; 554_MC black_JJ and_CC white_JJ illustrations_NN2 16_MC colour_NN1 plates_NN2 ._. 
ISBN_NP1 0_MC 300_MC 04337_MC 6._MC 49_MC ._. 
In_II a_AT1 heady_JJ essay_NN1 written_VVN over_RG thirty_MC years_NNT2 ago_RA ,_, Giorgio_NP1 de_NP1 Santillana_NP1 argued_VVD that_CST some_DD of_IO the_AT key_JJ ideas_NN2 of_IO the_AT Scientific_JJ Renaissance_NN1 were_VBDR to_TO be_VBI traced_VVN to_II developments_NN2 in_II the_AT arts_NN2 ._. 
In_RR21 particular_RR22 ,_, the_AT idea_NN1 of_IO space_NN1 was_VBDZ transformed_VVN from_II the_AT Aristotelian_JJ conception_NN1 a_AT1 '_GE tidy_JJ arrangement_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 simple_JJ multiplicity_NN1 of_IO things_NN2 ,_, not_XX unlike_JJ ,_, let_VV0 us_PPIO2 say_VVI ,_, the_AT shipping_NN1 department_NN1 of_IO Sears_NP1 Roebuck-_NN1 into_II '_GE a_AT1 matrix_NN1 for_IF infinite_JJ potential_JJ complexities_NN2 and_CC states_NN2 and_CC tensions_NN2 '_GE ._. 
The_AT main_JJ innovators_NN2 of_IO this_DD1 transformation_NN1 were_VBDR not_XX scientists_NN2 but_CCB artists_NN2 ,_, especially_RR Alberti_JJ ,_, Brunelleschi_NP1 and_CC Leonardo_NP1 ,_, who_PNQS created_VVD on_II their_APPGE canvases_NN2 and_CC in_II their_APPGE architecture_NN1 and_CC treatises_NN2 a_AT1 new_JJ conception_NN1 of_IO space_NN1 ._. 
When_CS I_PPIS1 first_MD encountered_VVN de_NP1 Santillana_NP1 's_GE paper_NN1 in_II the_AT late_JJ 1960s_MC2 I_PPIS1 found_VVD it_PPH1 both_RR fascinating_JJ and_CC suggestive_JJ ._. 
Its_APPGE attraction_NN1 arose_VVD principally_RR from_II its_APPGE iconoclastic_JJ message_NN1 ,_, for_IF de_NP1 Santillana_NP1 explained_VVD one_MC1 of_IO the_AT key_JJ conceptual_JJ innovations_NN2 in_II the_AT rise_NN1 of_IO modern_JJ science_NN1 in_II terms_NN2 that_CST challenged_VVD the_AT assumptions_NN2 of_IO my_APPGE teachers_NN2 in_II the_AT history_NN1 of_IO science_NN1 ._. 
They_PPHS2 had_VHD argued_VVN that_CST the_AT new_JJ ideas_NN2 about_II space_NN1 and_CC motion_NN1 had_VHD arisen_VVN from_II an_AT1 intellectual_NN1 and_CC ,_, to_II a_AT1 much_RR lesser_JJ extent_NN1 ,_, empirical_JJ critique_NN1 of_IO the_AT preceding_JJ ,_, largely_RR Anstotelian_JJ ,_, notions_NN2 ._. 
Discussion_NN1 of_IO this_DD1 transformation_NN1 was_VBDZ confined_VVN to_II the_AT great_JJ tradition_NN1 of_IO philosopher-scientists_NN2 beginning_VVG with_IW Aristotle_NP1 ,_, continuing_VVG with_IW medieval_JJ authors_NN2 ,_, such_II21 as_II22 Oresme_NP1 and_CC Jordanus_NP1 ,_, and_CC ending_VVG with_IW Kepler_NP1 ,_, Galileo_NP1 ,_, Descartes_NP1 and_CC ,_, of_RR21 course_RR22 ,_, Newton_NP1 ._. 
De_NP1 Santillana_NP1 offered_VVD a_AT1 very_RG different_JJ account_NN1 of_IO the_AT new_JJ ideas_NN2 of_IO space_NN1 and_CC a_AT1 different_JJ cast_NN1 of_IO actors_NN2 ._. 
Most_RGT importantly_RR ,_, he_PPHS1 claimed_VVD that_CST the_AT new_JJ science_NN1 was_VBDZ not_XX the_AT progeny_NN1 of_IO earlier_JJR science_NN1 but_CCB the_AT outgrowth_NN1 of_IO developments_NN2 in_II the_AT practical_JJ arts_NN2 ._. 
In_II his_APPGE account_NN1 the_AT history_NN1 of_IO art_NN1 and_CC the_AT history_NN1 of_IO science_NN1 were_VBDR intrinsically_RR linked_VVN :_: in_II the_AT late_JJ 1960s_MC2 this_DD1 was_VBDZ an_AT1 heretical_JJ claim_NN1 to_II most_DAT historians_NN2 of_IO science_NN1 (_( and_CC probably_RR many_DA2 historians_NN2 of_IO art_NN1 )_) ._. 
Although_CS sympathetic_JJ to_II this_DD1 heresy_NN1 I_PPIS1 found_VVD myself_PPX1 intoxicated_VVD but_CCB also_RR somewhat_RR inhibited_VVN by_II de_NP1 Santillana_NP1 's_GE impressionistic_JJ style_NN1 ._. 
However_RGQV exciting_JJ his_APPGE paper_NN1 ,_, his_APPGE thesis_NN1 seemed_VVD in_II danger_NN1 of_IO crumbling_VVG if_CSW it_PPH1 were_VBDR reworked_VVN into_II a_AT1 conventional_JJ historical_JJ discourse_NN1 ._. 
In_II the_AT book_NN1 under_II review_NN1 ,_, Martin_NP1 Kemp_NP1 reexamines_VVZ the_AT art-science_JJ relationship_NN1 with_IW much_DA1 care_NN1 and_CC circumspection_NN1 ._. 
His_APPGE style_NN1 is_VBZ lucid_JJ and_CC he_PPHS1 emerges_VVZ as_II an_AT1 honest_JJ broker_NN1 who_PNQS judiciously_RR weighs_VVZ the_AT historical_JJ evidence_NN1 ._. 
He_PPHS1 has_VHZ an_AT1 impressive_JJ command_NN1 of_IO the_AT literature_NN1 of_IO both_DB2 art_NN1 and_CC optical_JJ science_NN1 across_II much_DA1 of_IO Europe_NP1 and_CC over_II a_AT1 span_NN1 of_IO four_MC centuries_NNT2 ._. 
In_II contrast_NN1 to_II de_NP1 Santillana_NP1 's_GE uninterrupted_JJ thirty_MC pages_NN2 of_IO text_NN1 ,_, Kemp_NP1 's_GE thesis_NN1 is_VBZ amply_RR illustrated_VVN with_IW several_DA2 hundred_NNO plates_NN2 ,_, including_II many_DA2 of_IO his_APPGE own_DA line_NN1 drawings_NN2 showing_VVG artists_NN2 '_GE deployment_NN1 of_IO visual_JJ angles_NN2 ,_, vanishing_VVG points_NN2 ,_, etc_RA ._. 
The_AT reader_NN1 is_VBZ led_VVN gently_RR through_II the_AT history_NN1 of_IO art_NN1 and_CC the_AT details_NN2 of_IO optical_JJ science_NN1 to_TO appreciate_VVI their_APPGE interrelationship_NN1 ._. 
Albeit_CS less_RGR impressionistic_JJ and_CC insightful_JJ ,_, Kemp_NP1 's_GE analysis_NN1 is_VBZ of_IO broader_JJR scope_NN1 and_CC greater_JJR clarity_NN1 than_CSN de_NP1 Santillana_NP1 's_GE ._. 
Kemp_NP1 identifies_VVZ optics_NN1 as_II a_AT1 topic_NN1 of_IO common_JJ concern_NN1 to_II both_RR art_NN1 and_CC science_NN1 ._. 
(_( In_II a_AT1 sequel_NN1 he_PPHS1 proposes_VVZ to_TO pursue_VVI the_AT role_NN1 of_IO anatomy_NN1 and_CC natural_JJ history_NN1 in_II the_AT history_NN1 of_IO art_NN1 ._. )_) 
Of_IO the_AT many_DA2 interweaving_JJ strands_NN2 within_II this_DD1 extensive_JJ topic_NN1 he_PPHS1 concentrates_VVZ primarily_RR on_II the_AT way_NN1 artists_NN2 have_VH0 deployed_VVN scientific_JJ ideas_NN2 and_CC instruments_NN2 these_DD2 connections_NN2 constitute_VV0 '_GE the_AT science_NN1 of_IO art_NN1 '_GE of_IO his_APPGE title_NN1 while_CS he_PPHS1 also_RR encompasses_VVZ a_AT1 number_NN1 of_IO related_JJ themes_NN2 ._. 
The_AT science_NN1 of_IO art_NN1 ,_, claims_VVZ Kemp_NP1 ,_, has_VHZ not_XX been_VBN adequately_RR appreciated_VVN by_II art_NN1 historians_NN2 and_CC to_TO begin_VVI to_TO rectify_VVI the_AT situation_NN1 he_PPHS1 strives_VVZ to_TO demonstrate_VVI that_DD1 '_VBZ there_EX were_VBDR special_JJ kinds_NN2 of_IO affinity_NN1 between_II the_AT central_JJ intellectual_NN1 and_CC observational_JJ concerns_NN2 in_II the_AT visual_JJ arts_NN2 and_CC the_AT sciences_NN2 ,_, in_II European_JJ history_NN1 between_II the_AT Renaissance_NN1 and_CC the_AT nineteenth_MD century_NNT1 (_( p._NN1 1_MC1 )_) ._. 
In_II the_AT first_MD of_IO the_AT book_NN1 's_GE three_MC sections_NN2 Kemp_NP1 examines_VVZ the_AT theory_NN1 and_CC practice_NN1 of_IO perspective_NN1 from_II Brunelleschi_NP1 to_II Turner_NP1 ._. 
The_AT second_MD section_NN1 ,_, which_DDQ is_VBZ less_RGR focused_JJ and_CC less_RGR easy_JJ to_TO characterise_VVI ,_, contains_VVZ discussion_NN1 of_IO perspective_NN1 machines_NN2 and_CC other_JJ technical_JJ aids_NN2 as_II31 well_II32 as_II33 theories_NN2 of_IO perception_NN1 ._. 
The_AT final_JJ section_NN1 is_VBZ concerned_JJ with_IW the_AT theory_NN1 and_CC depiction_NN1 of_IO colour_NN1 ._. 
In_II the_AT first_MD section_NN1 one_MC1 of_IO Kemp_NP1 's_GE main_JJ themes_NN2 is_VBZ the_AT relationship_NN1 between_II theoria_NN1 and_CC praxis_NN1 ._. 
Renaissance_NN1 artists_NN2 confronting_VVG the_AT problem_NN1 of_IO portraying_VVG spatial_JJ arrangement_NN1 ,_, responded_VVN by_II developing_VVG linear_JJ perspective_NN1 ._. 
The_AT initial_JJ emphasis_NN1 was_VBDZ on_II praxis_NN1 ._. 
Following_VVG the_AT first_MD crude_JJ attempts_NN2 by_II Giotto_NP1 ,_, Lorenzetti_NP1 and_CC others_NN2 ,_, Brunelleschi_NP1 got_VVD it_PPH1 right_JJ ._. 
Then_RT ,_, in_II the_AT mid-1430s_MC2 ,_, Alberti_NP1 the_AT theorist_NN1 codified_VVD the_AT system_NN1 ._. 
The_AT basic_JJ rules_NN2 of_IO linear_JJ perspective_NN1 were_VBDR now_RT accessible_JJ to_II any_DD artist_NN1 ._. 
Theoria_NN1 could_VM influence_VVI praxis_NN1 ._. 
The_AT relation_NN1 between_II the_AT theory_NN1 and_CC practice_NN1 of_IO perspective_NN1 over_II the_AT next_MD four_MC centuries_NNT2 is_VBZ examined_VVN in_II detail_NN1 ._. 
Textbooks_NN2 flourished_VVD making_VVG the_AT rules_NN2 of_IO perspective_NN1 available_JJ to_II aspiring_JJ artists_NN2 ._. 
Codifiers_NN2 produced_VVD ever_RR more_RGR elaborate_JJ schemes_NN2 for_IF the_AT depiction_NN1 of_IO spatial_JJ arrangements_NN2 ,_, often_RR thereby_RR rendering_VVG their_APPGE work_NN1 incomprehensible_JJ to_II the_AT practising_JJ artist_NN1 ._. 
Artists_NN2 ,_, architects_NN2 and_CC draughtsmen_NN2 experimented_VVN with_IW the_AT new_JJ schemes_NN2 since_CS the_AT theory_NN1 of_IO perspective_NN1 offered_VVD exciting_JJ possibilities_NN2 to_TO depict_VVI the_AT spatial_JJ relations_NN2 between_II bodies_NN2 ._. 
Thus_RR the_AT eye_NN1 could_VM be_VBI subjected_VVN to_II precise_JJ '_GE reality_NN1 '_GE ,_, or_CC it_PPH1 could_VM be_VBI repositioned_VVN ,_, led_VVD ,_, titillated_VVD or_CC deceived_VVD ._. 
Some_DD of_IO the_AT most_RGT fascinating_JJ material_NN1 in_II this_DD1 book_NN1 is_VBZ provided_VVN by_II the_AT uses_NN2 of_IO perspective_NN1 to_TO create_VVI illusions_NN2 such_II21 as_II22 Mantegna_NP1 's_GE Camera_NN1 degli_NN2 Sposi_NP1 (_( 1465_MC 74_MC )_) and_CC Pozzo_NP1 's_GE dome_NN1 of_IO San_NP1 Ignazio_NP1 (_( 1685_MC )_) ._. 
Moreover_RR ,_, Kemp_NP1 hints_VVZ at_II the_AT diverse_JJ uses_NN2 of_IO perspective_NN1 which_DDQ offer_VV0 a_AT1 rich_JJ commentary_NN1 on_II European_JJ history_NN1 ._. 
In_II the_AT third_MD and_CC final_JJ section_NN1 of_IO the_AT book_NN1 Kemp_NP1 addresses_VVZ the_AT use_NN1 and_CC theory_NN1 of_IO colours_NN2 ._. 
He_PPHS1 argues_VVZ that_CST in_II the_AT sixteenth_MD and_CC seventeenth_MD centuries_NNT2 many_DA2 artists_NN2 adopted_VVD versions_NN2 of_IO the_AT Aristotelian_JJ theory_NN1 which_DDQ asserted_VVD that_CST colours_NN2 are_VBR a_AT1 mixture_NN1 of_IO black_JJ and_CC white_JJ in_II different_JJ proportions_NN2 ._. 
They_PPHS2 also_RR often_RR used_VVD constructively_RR the_AT analogy_NN1 between_II colours_NN2 and_CC the_AT harmonic_JJ scale_NN1 ._. 
However_RR ,_, Newton_NP1 's_GE theory_NN1 of_IO light_NN1 and_CC colours_NN2 ,_, first_MD published_VVN in_II 1672_MC and_CC extended_VVN in_II his_APPGE Opticks_NN2 (_( 1704_MC )_) ,_, provided_CS a_AT1 new_JJ direction_NN1 for_IF colour_NN1 theorists_NN2 ._. 
In_II opposition_NN1 to_II Aristotle_NP1 et_RA21 al_RA22 ,_, Newton_NP1 showed_VVD with_IW his_APPGE prism_NN1 that_CST white_JJ light_NN1 is_VBZ a_AT1 mixture_NN1 of_IO its_APPGE composite_JJ colours_NN2 ._. 
Moreover_RR ,_, in_II the_AT Opticks_NN2 he_PPHS1 identified_VVD seven_MC colours_NN2 in_II the_AT spectrum_NN1 and_CC described_VVD a_AT1 circle_NN1 divided_VVN into_II seven_MC segments_NN2 that_CST could_VM be_VBI used_VVN to_TO account_VVI for_IF colour_NN1 mixing_NN1 ._. 
Newton_NP1 's_GE views_NN2 were_VBDR subsequently_RR both_RR elaborated_VVN and_CC criticised_VVN ._. 
Colour_NN1 circles_NN2 became_VVD ever_RR more_RGR elaborate_JJ and_CC orientated_VVN towards_II the_AT practice_NN1 of_IO colour-mixing_NN1 witness_VV0 those_DD2 of_IO Moses_NP1 Harris_NP1 (_( c._RG 1770_MC )_) and_CC Michel-Lugne_NP1 Chevreul_NP1 (_( 1839_MC )_) ._. 
Louis_NP1 Castel_NP1 exploited_VVD the_AT analogy_NN1 between_II light_NN1 and_CC sound_NN1 with_IW his_58 '_GE Ocular_JJ clavichord_NN1 '_GE and_CC Goethe_NP1 explored_VVD subjective_JJ colours_NN2 ._. 
For_IF their_APPGE part_NN1 artists_NN2 were_VBDR experimenting_VVG and_CC drawing_VVG on_II the_AT insights_NN2 provided_VVN by_II the_AT colour_NN1 theorists_NN2 ._. 
Delacroix_NP1 took_VVD Chevreul_NP1 seriously_RR ._. 
Turner_NP1 ,_, always_RR alive_JJ to_II new_JJ ideas_NN2 ,_, responded_VVD creatively_RR to_II both_RR Harris_NP1 and_CC Goethe_NP1 ._. 
Seurat_NP1 paid_VVD close_JJ attention_NN1 to_II both_DB2 Helmholtz_NP1 's_GE Handbook_NN1 of_IO Physiological_JJ Optics_NN1 (_( 1867_MC )_) and_CC Ogden_NP1 Rood_NN1 's_GE Modern_JJ Chromatics_NN2 (_( 1879_MC )_) which_DDQ ,_, in_II turn_NN1 ,_, was_VBDZ based_VVN on_II James_NP1 Clerk_NN1 Maxwell_NP1 's_GE three-colour_JJ theory_NN1 of_IO vision_NN1 ._. 
Such_DA a_AT1 brief_JJ summary_NN1 does_VDZ not_XX do_VDI justice_NN1 to_II the_AT detail_NN1 and_CC complexity_NN1 of_IO Kemp_NP1 's_GE argument_NN1 ._. 
Optics_NN1 provides_VVZ a_AT1 superb_JJ locus_NN1 for_IF examining_VVG the_AT art-science_JJ relationship_NN1 since_CS optical_JJ problems_NN2 ,_, theories_NN2 and_CC constructions_NN2 were_VBDR integral_JJ to_TO both_RR science_NN1 and_CC art_NN1 ._. 
To_TO admit_VVI that_RG much_DA1 is_VBZ not_XX to_TO foreclose_VVI the_AT question_NN1 of_IO defining_VVG that_DD1 relationship_NN1 since_CS a_AT1 nuanced_JJ understanding_NN1 requires_VVZ the_AT command_NN1 of_IO historical_JJ detail_NN1 that_CST Kemp_NP1 provides_VVZ ._. 
Viewed_VVN from_II the_AT late_JJ twentieth_MD century_NNT1 and_CC the_AT widespread_JJ acceptance_NN1 of_IO the_AT '_GE two_MC cultures_NN2 '_GE ,_, the_AT search_NN1 for_IF affinities_NN2 between_II art_NN1 and_CC science_NN1 possesses_VVZ particular_JJ significance_NN1 for_IF the_AT historian_NN1 ._. 
Yet_RR ,_, by_II viewing_VVG history_NN1 in_II this_DD1 manner_NN1 Kemp_NP1 encounters_VVZ an_AT1 historiographical_JJ difficulty_NN1 that_CST he_PPHS1 never_RR satisfactorily_RR resolves_VVZ ._. 
This_DD1 problem_NN1 surfaces_NN2 even_RR in_II his_APPGE introduction_NN1 in_II which_DDQ he_PPHS1 states_VVZ that_CST his_APPGE concern_NN1 is_VBZ to_TO show_VVI how_RRQ artists_NN2 '_GE consciously_RR aspired_VVD towards_II goals_NN2 that_CST we_PPIS2 would_VM now_RT regard_VVI as_CSA scientific_JJ in_II a_AT1 broad_JJ sense_NN1 '_GE (_( p._NN1 1_MC1 )_) ._. 
Part_NN1 of_IO this_DD1 passage_NN1 has_VHZ been_VBN italicised_VVN to_TO draw_VVI attention_NN1 to_II the_AT somewhat_RR presentist_NN1 presupposition_NN1 that_CST underpins_VVZ much_DA1 of_IO this_DD1 book_NN1 ._. 
In_II qualifying_NN1 '_GE scientific_JJ '_GE by_II '_GE in_II a_AT1 broad_JJ sense_NN1 '_GE Kemp_NP1 shows_VVZ that_CST he_PPHS1 is_VBZ aware_JJ of_IO this_DD1 problem_NN1 ._. 
However_RR ,_, the_AT presentist_NN1 influence_NN1 is_VBZ all_DB too_RG pervasive_JJ ._. 
His_APPGE frequent_JJ appeals_NN2 to_II '_GE scientific_JJ concepts_NN2 '_GE and_CC '_GE scientific_JJ ideas_NN2 '_GE often_RR presuppose_VV0 an_AT1 unambiguous_JJ definition_NN1 of_IO science_NN1 and_CC one_PN1 that_CST is_VBZ atemporal_JJ ._. 
The_AT difficulty_NN1 is_VBZ most_RGT apparent_JJ when_CS discussing_VVG the_AT Renaissance_NN1 since_CS by_II hypostatising_VVG science_NN1 and_CC art_NN1 as_CSA two_MC separate_JJ and_CC separable_JJ activities_NN2 Kemp_NP1 is_VBZ framing_VVG a_AT1 problem_NN1 that_CST did_VDD not_XX exist_VVI for_IF the_AT historical_JJ actors_NN2 ._. 
Take_VV0 the_AT example_NN1 of_IO Brunelleschi_NP1 who_PNQS ,_, according_II21 to_II22 Kemp_NP1 ,_, introduced_JJ '_GE scientific_JJ consistency_NN1 '_GE into_II his_APPGE use_NN1 of_IO perspective_NN1 (_( p._NNU 14_MC )_) ._. 
The_AT phrase_NN1 suggests_VVZ that_CST Brunelleschi_NP1 was_VBDZ engaging_VVG in_II an_AT1 activity_NN1 other_II21 than_II22 art_NN1 ._. 
Was_VBDZ he_PPHS1 doing_VDG science_NN1 ?_? 
And_CC if_CS so_RR ,_, would_VM he_PPHS1 and_CC his_APPGE contemporaries_NN2 have_VH0 recognised_VVN that_CST in_II pursuing_VVG this_DD1 consistency_NN1 he_PPHS1 was_VBDZ doing_VDG science_NN1 ,_, not_XX art_NN1 ?_? 
Again_RT ,_, how_RRQ were_VBDR science_NN1 and_CC art_NN1 demarcated_VVN in_II the_AT early_JJ fifteenth_MD century_NNT1 socially_RR ,_, intellectually_RR and_CC institutionally_RR ?_? 
Kemp_NP1 's_GE difficulty_NN1 in_II defining_JJ '_GE science_NN1 '_GE and_CC '_GE art_NN1 '_GE is_VBZ not_XX confined_VVN to_II his_APPGE discussion_NN1 of_IO the_AT earlier_JJR period_NN1 ._. 
For_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, in_II his_APPGE appraisal_NN1 of_IO the_AT eighteenth_MD century_NNT1 he_PPHS1 uses_NN2 '_GE scientific_JJ '_GE and_CC '_GE Newtonian_NN1 '_GE as_CSA predicates_VVZ to_TO create_VVI the_AT impression_NN1 of_IO an_AT1 hypostasised_JJ activity_NN1 which_DDQ stood_VVD separate_JJ from_II art_NN1 and_CC other_JJ aspects_NN2 of_IO Western_JJ culture_NN1 ,_, including_II philosophy_NN1 ._. 
Thus_RR we_PPIS2 are_VBR told_VVN that_CST Brook_NP1 Taylor_NP1 ,_, the_AT author_NN1 of_IO the_AT first_MD major_JJ British_JJ work_NN1 on_II perspective_NN1 (_( 1715_MC )_) ,_, was_58 '_GE a_AT1 professional_JJ Newtonian_JJ scientist_NN1 '_GE (_( p._NNU 287_MC )_) ._. 
Although_CS Taylor_NP1 was_VBDZ active_JJ in_II the_AT Royal_JJ Society_NN1 ,_, both_RR predicates_VVZ misrepresent_NN1 this_DD1 English_JJ gentleman_NN1 who_PNQS wrote_VVD extensively_RR on_II mathematics_NN1 and_CC religion_NN1 ._. 
Likewise_RR ,_, owing_II21 to_II22 his_APPGE over-rigid_JJ use_NN1 of_IO categories_NN2 ,_, Kemp_NP1 characterises_VVZ David_NP1 Brewster_NP1 ,_, the_AT most_RGT eulogistic_JJ of_IO Newton_NP1 's_GE nineteenth-century_JJ biographers_NN2 ,_, as_CSA an_AT1 '_GE anti-Newtonian_NN1 '_GE (_( p._NNU 300_MC )_) ._. 
A_AT1 related_JJ and_CC equally_RR significant_JJ problem_NN1 arises_VVZ from_II Kemp_NP1 's_GE search_NN1 for_IF causal_JJ historical_JJ relations_NN2 between_II science_NN1 and_CC art_NN1 ._. 
Questions_NN2 of_IO historical_JJ influence_NN1 feature_NN1 prominently_RR in_II this_DD1 study_NN1 ._. 
Kemp_NP1 frequently_RR provides_VVZ details_NN2 of_IO superficial_JJ social_JJ acquaintance_NN1 between_II scientists_NN2 and_CC artists_NN2 and_CC refers_VVZ to_II their_APPGE reading_NN1 habits_NN2 ._. 
This_DD1 is_VBZ ,_, in_II one_MC1 sense_NN1 ,_, unobjectionable_JJ and_CC Kemp_NP1 rightly_RR weighs_VVZ the_AT evidence_NN1 for_IF influence_NN1 circumspectly_RR ._. 
However_RR ,_, the_AT very_JJ preoccupation_NN1 with_IW identifying_VVG causal_JJ influences_NN2 begs_VVZ more_RGR fundamental_JJ questions_NN2 about_II whether_CSW contemporaries_NN2 shared_VVD intellectual_JJ assumptions_NN2 ._. 
For_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, the_AT Scientific_JJ Revolution_NN1 of_IO the_AT seventeenth_MD century_NNT1 was_VBDZ constituted_VVN not_XX only_RR by_II the_AT new_JJ theories_NN2 of_IO Descartes_NP1 ,_, Galileo_NP1 and_CC Newton_NP1 but_CCB also_RR by_II new_JJ ways_NN2 of_IO experiencing_VVG the_AT world_NN1 ,_, interacting_VVG with_IW it_PPH1 and_CC thinking_VVG about_II it_PPH1 ._. 
According_II21 to_II22 this_DD1 claim_NN1 ,_, the_AT mores_NN2 of_IO the_AT eighteenth_MD century_NNT1 were_VBDR radically_RR different_JJ from_II the_AT sixteenth_MD ._. 
Yet_RR this_DD1 difference_NN1 is_VBZ somewhat_RR obscured_VVN in_II Kemp_NP1 's_GE analysis_NN1 by_II his_APPGE concern_NN1 to_TO explicate_VVI the_AT details_NN2 of_IO numerous_JJ perspective_NN1 schemes_NN2 and_CC the_AT techniques_NN2 employed_VVN by_II artists_NN2 ._. 
He_PPHS1 thereby_RR pays_VVZ less_DAR attention_NN1 than_CSN he_PPHS1 might_VM to_II interpreting_VVG the_AT science_NN1 of_IO art_NN1 as_II a_AT1 cultural_JJ phenomenon_NN1 ._. 
Ideological_JJ and_CC philosophical_JJ issues_NN2 receive_VV0 inadequate_JJ attention_NN1 and_CC yet_RR these_DD2 could_VM have_VHI helped_VVN define_VVI the_AT common_JJ context_NN1 (_( or_CC ,_, perhaps_RR ,_, the_AT contrasting_JJ contexts_NN2 )_) in_II which_DDQ art_NN1 and_CC science_NN1 were_VBDR pursued_VVN ._. 
Again_RT ,_, Kemp_NP1 's_GE subject_NN1 raises_VVZ important_JJ questions_NN2 about_II the_AT structure_NN1 and_CC function_NN1 of_IO institutions_NN2 which_DDQ he_PPHS1 only_RR engages_VVZ parenthetically_RR ._. 
More_RGR generally_RR ,_, a_AT1 less_RGR causal_JJ and_CC more_RGR structural_JJ approach_NN1 might_VM have_VHI been_VBN fruitful_JJ in_II illuminating_VVG the_AT historical_JJ conditioning_NN1 of_IO the_AT science_NN1 of_IO art_NN1 ._. 
Another_DD1 example_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 terminological_JJ difficulty_NN1 arises_VVZ in_II the_AT section_NN1 in_II which_DDQ Kemp_NP1 briefly_RR examines_VVZ the_AT relation_NN1 between_II perspective_NN1 and_CC eighteenth-century_JJ theories_NN2 of_IO perception_NN1 ._. 
Unfortunately_RR he_PPHS1 predicates_VVZ his_APPGE discussion_NN1 on_II the_AT contrast_NN1 between_RL '_GE empiricists_NN2 '_GE and_CC '_GE nativists_NN2 '_GE ,_, a_AT1 distinction_NN1 he_PPHS1 soon_RR recognises_VVZ as_RG inadequate_JJ ._. 
In_II41 the_II42 light_II43 of_II44 Kemp_NP1 's_GE historiography_NN1 ,_, it_PPH1 is_VBZ not_XX surprising_JJ that_CST he_PPHS1 concludes_VVZ that_CST ideas_NN2 about_II perception_NN1 (_( which_DDQ were_VBDR often_RR explicitly_RR discussed_VVN by_II '_GE scientists_NN2 '_GE and_CC '_GE philosophers_NN2 '_GE )_) had_VHD little_DA1 impact_NN1 on_II artists_NN2 (_( p._NNU 237_MC )_) ._. 
While_CS he_PPHS1 has_VHZ usefully_RR identified_VVN theories_NN2 of_IO perception_NN1 as_II an_AT1 aspect_NN1 of_IO the_AT science_NN1 of_IO art_NN1 ,_, they_PPHS2 deserve_VV0 a_AT1 more_RGR eclectic_JJ and_CC sustained_JJ analysis_NN1 ._. 
Let_VV0 me_PPIO1 therefore_RR mention_VVI briefly_RR some_DD further_JJR dimensions_NN2 of_IO the_AT subject_NN1 ._. 
Many_DA2 artists_NN2 ,_, scientists_NN2 and_CC philosophers_NN2 engaged_VVD the_AT question_NN1 of_IO whether_CSW linear_JJ (_( or_CC any_DD other_JJ )_) perspective_NN1 provides_VVZ the_AT true_JJ account_NN1 of_IO how_RRQ we_PPIS2 perceive_VV0 ._. 
For_IF some_DD authors_NN2 perspective_NN1 provides_VVZ both_RR the_AT laws_NN2 of_IO perception_NN1 and_CC also_RR the_AT key_NN1 to_II the_AT true_JJ and_CC rational_JJ representation_NN1 of_IO objects_NN2 ._. 
Learn_VV0 perspective_NN1 and_CC you_PPY can_VM imitate_VVI nature_NN1 precisely_RR ._. 
However_RR ,_, many_DA2 artists_NN2 seriously_RR questioned_VVN this_DD1 wisdom_NN1 ._. 
In_II their_APPGE art_NN1 they_PPHS2 combined_VVD perspective_NN1 with_IW drawing_NN1 '_GE by_II eye_NN1 '_GE ;_; they_PPHS2 instinctively_RR knew_VVD when_RRQ to_TO follow_VVI the_AT rules_NN2 and_CC when_RRQ to_TO break_VVI them_PPHO2 ._. 
This_DD1 ,_, for_IF Kemp_NP1 ,_, is_VBZ an_AT1 important_JJ clue_NN1 to_II the_AT success_NN1 of_IO Velzquez_NP1 and_CC Turner_NP1 for_IF whom_PNQO perspective_NN1 was_VBDZ a_AT1 useful_JJ servant_NN1 but_CCB a_AT1 poor_JJ master_NN1 ._. 
But_CCB artists_NN2 were_VBDR not_XX alone_JJ in_II considering_VVG and_CC debating_VVG the_AT truth_NN1 and_CC limitations_NN2 of_IO perspective_NN1 ._. 
A_AT1 related_JJ point_NN1 on_II which_DDQ most_DAT (_( but_CCB not_XX all_RR )_) physical_JJ scientists_NN2 (_( or_CC ,_, more_RGR appropriately_RR ,_, natural_JJ philosophers_NN2 )_) of_IO the_AT seventeenth_MD century_NNT1 would_VM have_VHI agreed_VVN ,_, was_VBDZ the_AT primacy_NN1 of_IO mathematics_NN1 in_II analysing_VVG the_AT physical_JJ universe_NN1 ._. 
Their_APPGE reasons_NN2 for_IF adopting_VVG this_DD1 view_NN1 differed_VVD somewhat_RR ,_, but_CCB we_PPIS2 can_VM take_VVI Galileo_NP1 's_GE position_NN1 as_CSA not_XX atypical_JJ ._. 
Echoing_VVG Plato_NP1 ,_, Galileo_NP1 claimed_VVD that_CST God_NP1 had_VHD created_VVN the_AT world_NN1 according_II21 to_II22 mathematical_JJ proportions_NN2 ._. 
This_DD1 implied_VVD that_CST only_RR in_II the_AT sphere_NN1 of_IO the_AT mathematical_JJ sciences_NN2 can_VM the_AT human_JJ intellect_NN1 attain_VV0 knowledge_NN1 that_CST is_VBZ as_RG objective_JJ and_CC as_RG certain_JJ as_CSA it_PPH1 is_VBZ known_VVN to_II the_AT divine_JJ mind_NN1 ._. 
Through_II mathematics_NN1 truth_NN1 and_CC reality_NN1 could_VM be_VBI laid_VVN bare_JJ and_CC appearances_NN2 transcended_VVD ._. 
This_DD1 metaphysical_JJ commitment_NN1 came_VVD under_II scrutiny_NN1 not_XX only_RR from_II those_DD2 artists_NN2 who_PNQS refused_VVD to_TO be_VBI limited_VVN by_II the_AT laws_NN2 of_IO perspective_NN1 but_CCB also_RR from_II '_GE scientists_NN2 '_GE and_CC '_GE philosophers_NN2 '_GE ._. 
One_MC1 of_IO the_AT most_RGT forceful_JJ attacks_NN2 was_VBDZ by_II George_NP1 Berkeley_NP1 in_II his_APPGE An_AT1 Essay_NN1 Towards_II a_AT1 New_JJ Theory_NN1 of_IO Vision_NN1 (_( 1709_MC )_) ._. 
Here_RL Berkeley_NP1 argued_VVD strenuously_RR against_II the_AT view_NN1 that_CST we_PPIS2 judge_VV0 the_AT distance_NN1 of_IO objects_NN2 by_II31 means_II32 of_II33 lines_NN2 and_CC angles_NN2 ._. 
Although_CS most_DAT commentators_NN2 have_VH0 claimed_VVN that_CST Berkeley_NP1 's_GE principal_JJ opponent_NN1 was_VBDZ Descartes_NP1 ,_, whom_PNQO he_PPHS1 cited_VVD as_II an_AT1 example_NN1 only_RR in_II the_AT second_MD (_( 1710_MC )_) edition_NN1 ,_, he_PPHS1 was_VBDZ more_RGR generally_RR denying_VVG the_AT widely-received_JJ assumption_NN1 that_CST we_PPIS2 see_VV0 according_II21 to_II22 the_AT laws_NN2 of_IO geometry_NN1 this_DD1 assumption_NN1 being_VBG central_JJ to_II the_AT perspectivist_NN1 tradition_NN1 ._. 
(_( Berkeley_NP1 was_VBDZ familiar_JJ with_IW perspective_NN1 machines_NN2 ,_, one_MC1 of_IO which_DDQ he_PPHS1 described_VVD in_II a_AT1 later_JJR work_NN1 ._. )_) 
Instead_RR ,_, Berkeley_NP1 sought_VVD to_TO show_VVI that_CST we_PPIS2 learn_VV0 to_TO judge_VVI the_AT distance_NN1 ,_, magnitude_NN1 and_CC situation_NN1 of_IO objects_NN2 ._. 
This_DD1 controversial_JJ book_NN1 was_VBDZ widely_RR discussed_VVN but_CCB whether_CSW it_PPH1 was_VBDZ read_VVN by_II artists_NN2 I_PPIS1 leave_VV0 to_II further_JJR research_NN1 ._. 
Berkeley_NP1 was_VBDZ not_XX alone_JJ in_II questioning_VVG whether_CSW geometrical_JJ methods_NN2 are_VBR adequate_JJ to_TO account_VVI for_IF visual_JJ perception_NN1 since_CS there_EX was_VBDZ a_AT1 large_JJ literature_NN1 on_II the_AT subject_NN1 by_II '_GE scientists_NN2 '_GE and_CC ,_, as_CSA Kemp_NP1 shows_VVZ ,_, artists_NN2 also_RR frequently_RR commented_VVN on_II it_PPH1 ._. 
One_MC1 of_IO the_AT leading_JJ problems_NN2 in_II this_DD1 area_NN1 was_VBDZ the_AT horizontal_JJ moon_NN1 illusion_NN1 :_: the_AT moon_NN1 appears_VVZ larger_JJR near_II the_AT horizon_NN1 than_CSN in_II its_APPGE zenith_NN1 ._. 
Since_CS Ptolemy_NP1 tried_VVD to_TO solve_VVI this_DD1 problem_NN1 in_II the_AT second_MD century_NNT1 ,_, it_PPH1 has_VHZ been_VBN on_II the_AT agenda_NN1 of_IO theorists_NN2 of_IO perception_NN1 and_CC is_VBZ still_JJ ,_, I_PPIS1 understand_VV0 ,_, not_XX fully_RR resolved_VVN ._. 
In_II the_AT eighteenth_MD century_NNT1 it_PPH1 was_VBDZ one_MC1 of_IO the_AT main_JJ test_NN1 cases_NN2 for_IF the_AT dominance_NN1 of_IO geometry_NN1 ._. 
Attacks_NN2 on_II geometrically-based_JJ theories_NN2 of_IO vision_NN1 (_( together_RL with_IW the_AT deployment_NN1 of_IO such_DA examples_NN2 as_CSA the_AT horizontal_JJ moon_NN1 illusion_NN1 )_) provide_VV0 a_AT1 theme_NN1 of_IO common_JJ concern_NN1 to_II artists_NN2 ,_, scientists_NN2 and_CC philosophers_NN2 and_CC deserve_VV0 further_JJR analysis_NN1 than_CSN Kemp_NP1 offers_NN2 ._. 
If_CS there_EX are_VBR aspects_NN2 of_IO the_AT science_NN1 of_IO art_NN1 that_CST Kemp_NP1 fails_VVZ to_TO engage_VVI adequately_RR ,_, the_AT scope_NN1 of_IO this_DD1 book_NN1 is_VBZ nevertheless_RR very_RG impressive_JJ and_CC a_AT1 number_NN1 of_IO the_AT issues_NN2 he_PPHS1 discusses_VVZ impinge_VV0 on_II my_APPGE concerns_NN2 as_II an_AT1 historian_NN1 of_IO science_NN1 ._. 
Let_VV0 me_PPIO1 allude_VVI to_II two_MC of_IO these_DD2 issues_NN2 ._. 
In_II the_AT history_NN1 of_IO science_NN1 theoria_NN1 has_VHZ usually_RR been_VBN accorded_VVN far_RG greater_JJR importance_NN1 than_CSN praxis_NN1 ._. 
The_AT general_JJ view_NN1 has_VHZ been_VBN that_DD1 theoria_NN1 is_VBZ the_AT engine_NN1 driving_VVG the_AT historical_JJ development_NN1 of_IO science_NN1 and_CC that_DD1 praxis_NN1 is_VBZ merely_RR the_AT application_NN1 of_IO theoria_NN1 ._. 
Although_CS some_DD historians_NN2 ,_, often_RR Marxists_NN2 ,_, have_VH0 rejected_VVN this_DD1 consensus_NN1 ,_, only_RR recently_RR have_VH0 aspects_NN2 of_IO praxis_NN1 ,_, such_II21 as_II22 laboratory_NN1 skills_NN2 ,_, been_VBN subjected_VVN to_TO close_VVI and_CC sustained_JJ study_NN1 ._. 
In_II this_DD1 respect_NN1 the_AT historian_NN1 of_IO science_NN1 has_VHZ much_DA1 to_TO learn_VVI from_II an_AT1 art_NN1 historian_NN1 like_II Kemp_NP1 ._. 
Moreover_RR ,_, the_AT analysis_NN1 of_IO skills_NN2 provides_VVZ a_AT1 common_JJ topic_NN1 of_IO research_NN1 for_IF both_RR art_NN1 and_CC science_NN1 historians_NN2 ._. 
The_AT second_MD issue_NN1 concerns_VVZ the_AT art-science_JJ relationship_NN1 which_DDQ Kemp_NP1 analyses_VVZ through_II the_AT history_NN1 of_IO perspective_NN1 and_CC of_IO colour_NN1 ._. 
The_AT latter_DA case_NN1 is_VBZ the_AT more_RGR straightforward_JJ since_CS he_PPHS1 presents_VVZ the_AT impact_NN1 of_IO Newton_NP1 's_GE theory_NN1 of_IO coloured_JJ light_NN1 as_CSA radically_RR reorientating_VVG this_DD1 area_NN1 ._. 
With_IW perspective_NN1 ,_, the_AT key_JJ figures_NN2 of_IO the_AT Scientific_JJ Revolution_NN1 are_VBR presented_VVN as_II the_AT heirs_NN2 to_II developments_NN2 in_II art_NN1 ._. 
For_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, we_PPIS2 encounter_VV0 Galileo_NP1 as_II a_AT1 bit-player_NN1 who_PNQS corresponded_VVD with_IW Lodovico_NP1 Cigoli_NP1 over_II his_APPGE lunar_JJ and_CC sunspot_VV0 observations_NN2 ._. 
More_RGR particularly_RR ,_, Galileo_NP1 used_VVD standard_JJ perspective_NN1 procedures_NN2 in_II accounting_VVG for_IF the_AT foreshortening_NN1 of_IO the_AT spots_NN2 which_DDQ he_PPHS1 claimed_VVD in_II 1613_MC were_VBDR on_II the_AT surface_NN1 of_IO the_AT sun_NN1 ._. 
Unfortunately_RR Kepler_NP1 receives_VVZ even_RR less_DAR attention_NN1 ._. 
Yet_RR in_II 1600_MC Kepler_NP1 made_VVD important_JJ contributions_NN2 to_II optical_JJ science_NN1 ,_, especially_RR to_II the_AT theory_NN1 of_IO image_NN1 formation_NN1 ._. 
Kepler_NP1 's_GE concern_NN1 with_IW the_AT formation_NN1 of_IO images_NN2 was_VBDZ a_AT1 response_NN1 to_II a_AT1 practical_JJ problem_NN1 ._. 
He_PPHS1 noticed_VVD that_CST when_CS viewed_VVN with_IW a_AT1 camera_NN121 obscura_NN122 the_AT image_NN1 of_IO the_AT sun_NN1 was_VBDZ too_RG large_JJ but_CCB this_DD1 enlargement_NN1 was_VBDZ not_XX explained_VVN by_II existing_JJ theory_NN1 ._. 
Instead_RR ,_, he_PPHS1 conceived_VVD every_AT1 illuminated_JJ point_NN1 being_VBG the_AT source_NN1 of_IO rays_NN2 spreading_VVG in_II all_DB directions_NN2 ;_; a_AT1 bundle_NN1 of_IO these_DD2 rays_NN2 (_( rather_II21 than_II22 a_AT1 single_JJ ray_NN1 )_) pass_VV0 through_II the_AT hole_NN1 in_II a_AT1 camera_NN121 obscura_NN122 (_( or_CC the_AT pupil_NN1 of_IO the_AT eye_NN1 )_) ._. 
Thus_RR the_AT image_NN1 is_VBZ enlarged_VVN owing_II21 to_II22 the_AT finite_JJ size_NN1 of_IO the_AT hole_NN1 ._. 
In_II his_APPGE resolution_NN1 of_IO the_AT problem_NN1 Kepler_NN1 represented_VVD his_APPGE rays_NN2 by_II strings_NN2 ._. 
For_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, in_II ascertaining_VVG the_AT image_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 book_NN1 on_II a_AT1 distant_JJ plane_NN1 ,_, he_PPHS1 adopted_VVD a_AT1 procedure_NN1 familiar_JJ to_II artists_NN2 for_IF almost_RR a_AT1 century_NNT1 ._. 
He_PPHS1 used_VVD a_AT1 stretched_JJ string_NN1 to_TO plot_VVI ray_NN1 paths_NN2 that_CST just_RR grazed_VVD the_AT book_NN1 in_II their_APPGE transit_NN1 from_II the_AT source_NN1 of_IO the_AT screen_NN1 ._. 
This_DD1 method_NN1 of_IO repeatedly_RR deploying_VVG a_AT1 stretched_JJ string_NN1 to_TO plot_VVI the_AT light_JJ rays_NN2 and_CC thus_RR ascertain_VV0 selected_JJ points_NN2 on_II an_AT1 image_NN1 was_VBDZ incorporated_VVN into_II the_AT perspective_NN1 machines_NN2 described_VVN by_II Leonardo_NP1 and_CC Drer_NP1 ._. 
While_CS the_AT example_NN1 of_IO Kepler_NP1 illustrates_VVZ the_AT influence_NN1 of_IO artistic_JJ practice_NN1 on_II a_AT1 '_GE scientist_NN1 '_GE (_( which_DDQ is_VBZ not_XX Kemp_NP1 's_GE primary_JJ concern_NN1 )_) ,_, discussion_NN1 of_IO this_DD1 instance_NN1 would_VM have_VHI enhanced_VVN considerably_RR the_AT author_NN1 's_GE argument_NN1 that_CST both_DB2 the_AT theory_NN1 and_CC practice_NN1 of_IO perspective_NN1 were_VBDR significant_JJ resources_NN2 for_IF the_AT Scientific_JJ Revolution_NN1 of_IO the_AT seventeenth_MD century_NNT1 ._. 
He_PPHS1 also_RR argues_VVZ that_CST ,_, in_II its_APPGE turn_NN1 ,_, the_AT Scientific_JJ Revolution_NN1 had_VHD some_DD effect_NN1 on_II the_AT visual_JJ arts_NN2 ._. 
Military_JJ engineers_NN2 ,_, who_PNQS were_VBDR also_RR often_RR mathematicians_NN2 ,_, such_II21 as_II22 Simon_NP1 Stevin_NP1 and_CC Girard_NP1 Desargues_NP1 ,_, contributed_VVD significantly_RR to_II the_AT subject_NN1 of_IO perspective_NN1 ._. 
Newton_NP1 is_VBZ portrayed_VVN as_CSA influencing_VVG eighteenth-century_JJ perspective_NN1 in_II an_AT1 unspecified_JJ manner_NN1 ,_, although_CS his_APPGE effect_NN1 on_II colour_NN1 theory_NN1 is_VBZ seen_VVN as_CSA considerable_JJ ._. 
However_RR ,_, on_II Kemp_NP1 's_GE account_NN1 few_DA2 artists_NN2 took_VVD notice_NN1 of_IO the_AT philosophical_JJ ,_, mathematical_JJ and_CC scientific_JJ innovations_NN2 of_IO Descartes_NN2 and_CC Kepler_NP1 ._. 
By_II the_AT eighteenth_MD century_NNT1 there_EX was_VBDZ a_AT1 considerable_JJ parting_NN1 of_IO the_AT ways_NN2 since_CS the_AT more_RGR erudite_JJ mathematical_JJ treatises_NN2 on_II perspective_NN1 ,_, such_II21 as_II22 those_DD2 by_II Lambert_NP1 and_CC Monge_NP1 ,_, were_VBDR of_IO no_AT use_NN1 to_II the_AT practising_JJ artist_NN1 ._. 
Even_RR optical_JJ instruments_NN2 ,_, such_II21 as_II22 perspective_NN1 machines_NN2 ,_, the_AT camera_NN121 obscura_NN122 and_CC the_AT camera_NN1 lucida_NN1 ,_, were_VBDR used_VVN sparingly_RR ._. 
It_PPH1 appears_VVZ that_CST once_CS science_NN1 gained_VVD its_APPGE independent_JJ identity_NN1 ,_, scientists_NN2 and_CC artists_NN2 used_JJ perspective_NN1 for_IF increasingly_RR different_JJ purposes_NN2 ._. 
As_CSA with_IW de_NP1 Santillana_NP1 's_GE innovatory_JJ essay_NN1 Kemp_NP1 's_GE book_NN1 not_XX only_RR offers_VVZ new_JJ ways_NN2 of_IO understanding_VVG the_AT history_NN1 of_IO science_NN1 and_CC the_AT history_NN1 of_IO art_NN1 but_CCB it_PPH1 also_RR raises_VVZ a_AT1 host_NN1 of_IO historical_JJ and_CC historiographical_JJ questions_NN2 ._. 
These_DD2 questions_NN2 in_II turn_NN1 suggest_VV0 further_JJR lines_NN2 of_IO research_NN1 that_CST deserve_VV0 serious_JJ attention_NN1 by_II historians_NN2 of_IO both_RR science_NN1 and_CC art_NN1 ._. 
Kemp_NP1 has_VHZ performed_VVN a_AT1 valuable_JJ service_NN1 in_II opening_VVG up_RP this_DD1 area_NN1 ._. 
I_PPIS1 hope_VV0 other_JJ historians_NN2 will_VM now_RT follow_VVI his_APPGE lead_NN1 ._. 
ON_II THE_AT PASSAGE_NN1 OF_IO A_AT1 FEW_DA2 PEOPLE_NN :_: SITUATIONIST_JJ NOSTALGIA_NN1 PETER_NP1 SMITH_NP1 An_AT1 endless_JJ adventure_NN1 ..._... an_AT1 endless_JJ passion_NN1 ..._... an_AT1 endless_JJ banquet_NN1 ._. 
A_AT1 Situationist_JJ Scrapbook_NN1 ,_, edited_VVN by_II Iwona_NP1 Blazwick_NP1 in_II31 consultation_II32 with_II33 Mark_NP1 Francis_NP1 ,_, Peter_NP1 Wollen_NP1 and_CC Malcolm_NP1 Imrie_NP1 ,_, Verso/_NN1 ICA_NP1 Publications_NN2 ,_, London_NP1 ,_, 1989._MC 96_MC pp_NNU2 ._. 
ISBN_NP1 0_MC 8691_MC 983_MC 8._MC 10.95._MC (_( sandpaperback_NN1 )_) On_II the_AT Passage_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 Few_DA2 People_NN Through_II a_AT1 Brief_JJ Moment_NN1 in_II Time_NNT1 ._. 
The_AT Situationist_JJ International_JJ 1957_MC 1972_MC ,_, edited_VVN by_II Elisabeth_NP1 Sussman_NP1 ,_, The_AT MIT_NP1 Press/ICA_FU ,_, Boston_NP1 ,_, Massachusetts_NP1 ,_, 1989_MC ,_, 200_MC pp_NNU2 ._. 
ISBN_NP1 0860919838._MC 19.95_MC ._. 
I_PPIS1 These_DD2 books_NN2 are_VBR both_RR related_VVN to_II the_AT exhibition_NN1 On_II The_AT Passage_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 Few_DA2 People_NN Through_II a_AT1 Brief_JJ Period_NN1 of_IO Time_NNT1 presented_VVN at_II the_AT Muse_NN1 national_JJ d'art_NN1 moderne-Centre_NN1 Georges_NP1 Pompidou_NP1 ,_, the_AT Institute_NN1 of_IO Contemporary_JJ Arts_NN2 in_II London_NP1 ,_, and_CC the_AT Institute_NN1 of_IO Contemporary_JJ Art_NN1 in_II Boston_NP1 ,_, Massachusetts_NP1 during_II 1989_MC 90_MC ._. 
The_AT exhibition_NN1 was_VBDZ conceived_VVN and_CC realised_VVN by_II Mark_NP1 Francis_NP1 and_CC Peter_NP1 Wollen_NP1 with_IW Paul_NP1 Herv_NP1 Parsy_NP1 ._. 
Francis_NP1 and_CC Wollen_NP1 have_VH0 also_RR contributed_VVN articles_NN2 (_( one_MC1 each_DD1 )_) both_DB2 of_IO which_DDQ appear_VV0 in_II both_DB2 books_NN2 as_CSA introductory_JJ statements_NN2 on_II the_AT Situationist_JJ International_JJ ._. 
Both_DB2 books_NN2 are_VBR anthologies_NN2 of_IO materials_NN2 by_II a_AT1 large_JJ number_NN1 of_IO contributors_NN2 ._. 
Their_APPGE titles_NN2 invoke_VV0 the_AT Situationists_NN2 '_GE rhetorical_JJ use_NN1 of_IO long_JJ and_CC rhapsodic_JJ titles_NN2 ._. 
They_PPHS2 also_RR denote_VV0 deliberate_JJ obfuscations_NN2 deriving_VVG from_II Dada_NP1 and_CC Surrealism_NN1 ._. 
On_II the_AT Passage_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 Few_DA2 People_NN Through_II a_AT1 Brief_JJ Moment_NN1 in_II Time_NNT1 (_( henceforth_RT '_GE the_AT Boston_NP1 text'_NN1 )_) is_VBZ a_AT1 film_NN1 title_NN1 used_VVN by_II Guy_NP1 Debord_NP1 in_II 1959_MC ._. 
The_AT Situationist_JJ Scrapbook_NN1 includes_VVZ only_RR two_MC synoptical_JJ essays_NN2 ,_, the_AT rest_NN1 being_VBG made_VVN up_RP of_IO a_AT1 selection_NN1 of_IO documents_NN2 produced_VVN in_II various_JJ parts_NN2 of_IO Europe_NP1 and_CC Britain_NP1 from_II the_AT fifties_MC2 to_II the_AT eighties_MC2 ,_, some_DD of_IO which_DDQ predate_VV0 the_AT founding_NN1 of_IO the_AT Situationist_JJ International_JJ (_( henceforth_RT the_AT '_GE SI'_NP1 )_) ._. 
These_DD2 are_VBR followed_VVN by_II documents_NN2 relating_VVG to_II the_AT SI_FW in_II Britain_NP1 which_DDQ include_VV0 Ralph_NP1 Rumney_NP1 's_GE Psychogeographic_JJ Map_NN1 of_IO Venice_NP1 (_( 1957_MC )_) ,_, and_CC brief_JJ statements_NN2 by_II Michle_NP1 Bernstein_NP1 which_DDQ appear_VV0 in_II the_AT British_JJ press_NN1 in_II the_AT 1950s_MC2 and_CC 1960s_MC2 ._. 
The_AT greater_JJR part_NN1 of_IO the_AT Scrapbook_NN1 largely_RR consists_VVZ of_IO what_DDQ the_AT editor_NN1 identifies_NN1 as_58 '_GE the_AT British_JJ inheritance_NN1 '_GE which_DDQ covers_VVZ the_AT period_NN1 from_II 1966_MC 1988_MC ._. 
The_AT book_NN1 is_VBZ therefore_RR very_RG much_RR an_AT1 account_NN1 of_IO the_AT movement_NN1 's_GE influence_NN1 in_II Britain_NP1 ._. 
The_AT Boston_NP1 text_NN1 relates_VVZ more_RGR exclusively_RR to_II the_AT movement_NN1 itself_PPX1 and_CC includes_VVZ ,_, along_II21 with_II22 historical_JJ material_NN1 ,_, a_AT1 brief_JJ statement_NN1 by_II Mark_NP1 Francis_NP1 which_DDQ is_VBZ intended_VVN to_TO justify_VVI and_CC explain_VVI the_AT motives_NN2 behind_II the_AT exhibition_NN1 (_( the_AT Situationists_NN2 did_VDD not_XX give_VVI the_AT event_NN1 their_APPGE blessings_NN2 and_CC none_PN of_IO the_AT past_JJ members_NN2 participated_VVD in_II its_APPGE planning_NN1 )_) ._. 
'_" What_DDQ we_PPIS2 have_VH0 sought_VVN to_TO do_VDI '_GE ,_, claims_VVZ Francis_NP1 speaking_VVG for_IF the_AT organisers_NN2 of_IO the_AT exhibition_NN1 ,_, '_GE is_VBZ not_XX to_TO reconstruct_VVI time_NNT1 past_RL but_CCB to_TO expose_VVI to_II the_AT light_JJ things_NN2 that_CST have_VH0 run_VVN the_AT risk_NN1 of_IO acquiring_VVG the_AT patina_NN1 of_IO nostalgia_NN1 and_CC the_AT glamour_NN1 of_IO neglect_NN1 ._. 
'_" If_CSW this_DD1 statement_NN1 betrays_VVZ a_AT1 certain_JJ uneasiness_NN1 it_PPH1 is_VBZ perhaps_RR not_XX surprising_JJ given_VVN the_AT subversive_JJ status_NN1 of_IO the_AT Situationist_JJ project_NN1 and_CC their_APPGE condemnation_NN1 of_IO the_AT art_NN1 world_NN1 ._. 
Francis_NP1 also_RR implies_VVZ ,_, somewhat_RR unconvincingly_RR ,_, that_CST the_AT event_NN1 was_VBDZ conceived_VVN in_II a_AT1 spirit_NN1 of_IO Potlatch_NP1 and_CC accepts_VVZ the_AT Lettrist_JJ belief_NN1 in_II the_AT legitimate_JJ use_NN1 of_IO plagiarism_NN1 ._. 
The_AT Lettrists_NN2 and_CC the_AT Situationists_NN2 had_VHD used_VVN '_GE pre-existing_JJ elements_NN2 '_GE for_IF their_APPGE own_DA ends_NN2 ,_, and_CC so_RR the_AT editors_NN2 of_IO the_AT Boston_NP1 text_NN1 and_CC the_AT curators_NN2 of_IO On_II the_AT Passage_NN1 have_VH0 ,_, they_PPHS2 feel_VV0 ,_, a_AT1 certain_JJ entitlement_NN1 to_TO do_VDI the_AT same_DA ._. 
This_DD1 legitimation_NN1 in_II turn_NN1 is_VBZ related_VVN to_II the_AT principle_NN1 of_IO dtournement_NN1 ,_, a_AT1 term_NN1 which_DDQ had_VHD been_VBN coined_VVN initially_RR by_II the_AT Lettrists_NN2 for_IF their_APPGE neo-Dadaist_JJ practice_NN1 of_IO cannibalising_VVG pre-existent_JJ materials_NN2 (_( in_II the_AT manner_NN1 of_IO Duchamp_NP1 's_GE LHOOQ_NP1 )_) with_IW subversive_JJ intent_NN1 ._. 
My_APPGE view_NN1 of_IO the_AT exhibition_NN1 and_CC these_DD2 complementary_JJ texts_NN2 is_VBZ that_CST they_PPHS2 seem_VV0 for_RR41 the_RR42 most_RR43 part_RR44 to_TO lack_VVI the_AT critical_JJ motivation_NN1 and_CC the_AT dialectical_JJ irony_NN1 of_IO the_AT Situationists_NN2 ._. 
They_PPHS2 are_VBR normative_JJ representations_NN2 ,_, reverential_JJ in_II tone_NN1 ,_, recuperative_JJ in_II effect_NN1 and_CC the_AT ideological_JJ positions_NN2 which_DDQ they_PPHS2 reflect_VV0 are_VBR conveniently_RR distanced_VVN from_II those_DD2 of_IO the_AT SI_FW ._. 
Self-evidently_RR these_DD2 texts_NN2 are_VBR strikingly_RR different_JJ from_II original_JJ materials_NN2 issued_VVN by_II the_AT SI_FW in_II the_AT sense_NN1 that_CST they_PPHS2 have_VH0 the_AT status_NN1 of_IO copyrighted_JJ property_NN1 and_CC have_VH0 been_VBN funded_VVN by_II organisations_NN2 which_DDQ in_II the_AT past_NN1 may_VM have_VHI supported_VVN progressive_JJ art_NN1 but_CCB which_DDQ do_VD0 not_XX sound_VVI like_II the_AT champions_NN2 of_IO revolutionary_JJ causes_NN2 ._. 
The_AT Boston_NP1 text_NN1 ,_, for_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, is_VBZ published_VVN with_IW the_AT assistance_NN1 of_IO the_AT Getty_NP1 Grant_NP1 Program_NN1 ,_, Massachusetts_NP1 Council_NN1 of_IO the_AT Arts_NN2 and_CC the_AT Humanities_NN2 ,_, and_CC additional_JJ funding_NN1 is_VBZ provided_VVN by_II the_AT Lila_NP1 Wallace_NP1 Reader_NN1 's_GE Digest_NN1 Fund_NN1 (_( the_AT benefactor_NN1 of_IO the_AT American_JJ Wing_NN1 at_II the_AT Metropolitan_JJ Museum_NN1 of_IO Art_NN1 ,_, New_NP1 York_NP1 )_) ._. 
The_AT Scrapbook_NN1 is_VBZ also_RR variously_RR supported_VVN by_II Association_NN1 Franaise_NP1 d'Action_NP1 Artistique_NP1 ,_, the_AT Ministry_NN1 of_IO Culture_NN1 ,_, Copenhagen_NP1 ,_, the_AT Instituo_NP1 Banco_NP1 San_NP1 Paulo_NP1 of_IO Turin_NP1 ,_, Becks_NP2 Bier_NN1 ,_, to_TO name_VVI some_DD of_IO the_AT backers_NN2 ,_, and_CC also_RR by_II the_AT furtively_RR named_VVN Friends_NN2 of_IO the_AT Situationist_JJ International_JJ ,_, whoever_PNQV they_PPHS2 are_VBR !_! 
More_RGR prosaically_RR ,_, the_AT sandpaper_NN1 cover_NN1 (_( which_DDQ ,_, like_II the_AT Jorn/Debord_NN1 text_NN1 Mmoires_NN2 of_IO 1959_MC ,_, is_VBZ meant_VVN to_TO damage_VVI your_APPGE other_JJ books_NN2 )_) was_VBDZ donated_VVN by_II English_JJ Abrasives_NP1 and_CC Chemicals_NN2 Ltd_JJ ._. 
One_MC1 of_IO the_AT first_MD '_GE political_JJ '_GE statements_NN2 in_II the_AT Boston_NP1 text_NN1 is_VBZ the_AT copyright_NN1 restriction_NN1 notice_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 appears_VVZ a_AT1 few_DA2 lines_NN2 away_II21 from_II22 the_AT plagiarised_JJ title_NN1 of_IO the_AT book_NN1 ._. 
The_AT proscription_NN1 is_VBZ ,_, of_RR21 course_RR22 ,_, a_AT1 legal_JJ convention_NN1 which_DDQ we_PPIS2 would_VM normally_RR take_VVI for_IF granted_VVN ,_, but_CCB is_VBZ ,_, in_II this_DD1 context_NN1 ,_, inconsistent_JJ with_IW the_AT SI_FW anti-copyright_JJ policy_NN1 and_CC ,_, in_II41 the_II42 light_II43 of_II44 the_AT Lautramont_NP1 axiom_NN1 :_: '_GE Plagiarism_NN1 is_VBZ necessary_JJ progress_NN1 implies_VVZ it_PPH1 ,_, '_" which_DDQ Francis_NP1 cites_VVZ on_II page_NN1 19_MC ,_, is_VBZ an_AT1 unintended_JJ irony_NN1 ._. 
The_AT Boston_NP1 text_NN1 is_VBZ more_RGR obviously_RR an_AT1 exhibition_NN1 catalogue_NN1 ,_, if_CS only_RR because_CS it_PPH1 includes_VVZ a_AT1 '_GE checklist_NN1 '_GE of_IO the_AT exhibition_NN1 ,_, which_DDQ ,_, ignoring_VVG the_AT problematic_JJ identity_NN1 of_IO some_DD of_IO the_AT works_NN ,_, distinguishes_VVZ between_II works_NN of_IO art_NN1 and_CC other_JJ items_NN2 (_( books_NN2 ,_, tracts_NN2 ,_, pamphlets_NN2 ,_, etc._RA )_) and_CC also_RR carefully_RR identifies_VVZ the_AT status_NN1 of_IO individual_JJ exhibits_NN2 by_II signifying_VVG their_APPGE producer_NN1 's_GE relationship_NN1 to_II the_AT formally_RR identified_VVN Situationist_JJ group_NN1 ._. 
There_EX is_VBZ another_DD1 category_NN1 for_IF Situationist_JJ wannabees_NN2 ,_, which_DDQ was_VBDZ an_AT1 additional_JJ and_CC problematical_JJ area_NN1 of_IO both_DB2 books_NN2 and_CC the_AT exhibition_NN1 ._. 
Some_DD of_IO the_AT materials_NN2 in_II this_DD1 area_NN1 seemed_VVD to_TO have_VHI the_AT purpose_NN1 of_IO padding_NN1 out_RP the_AT exhibition_NN1 ,_, whilst_CS at_II the_AT same_DA time_NNT1 fulfilling_VVG the_AT traditional_JJ function_NN1 of_IO consolidating_VVG the_AT achievements_NN2 of_IO the_AT founding_JJ group_NN1 whose_DDQGE significance_NN1 it_PPH1 was_VBDZ the_AT purpose_NN1 of_IO the_AT exhibition_NN1 to_TO celebrate_VVI ._. 
Francis_NP1 identifies_VVZ the_AT stages_NN2 of_IO the_AT SI_FW narrative_NN1 as_II a_AT1 chronological_JJ trajectory_NN1 corresponding_VVG to_II (_( i_ZZ1 )_) the_AT Experimental_JJ Laboratory_NN1 period_NN1 ;_; (_( ii_MC )_) the_AT detonator_NN1 period_NN1 (_( which_DDQ refers_VVZ to_II Debord_NP1 's_GE boast_NN1 that_CST he_PPHS1 provided_VVD the_AT explosive_JJ machinery_NN1 that_CST ignited_VVD in_II May_NPM1 1968_MC )_) ;_; (_( iii_MC )_) the_AT Fallout_NN1 period_NN1 after_II the_AT SI_FW disbanded_VVD in_II 1972_MC ._. 
These_DD2 stages_NN2 provide_VV0 the_AT logic_NN1 for_IF the_AT '_GE diachronic_JJ structure_NN1 '_GE of_IO the_AT exhibition_NN1 ._. 
In_II the_AT Fallout_NN1 section_NN1 are_VBR included_VVN artists_NN2 ,_, writers_NN2 and_CC others_NN2 '_GE who_PNQS all_RR had_VHD (_( sic_RR )_) some_DD contact_NN1 with_IW the_AT SI_FW '_GE ._. 
Periodisation_NN1 and_CC classification_NN1 present_NN1 some_DD difficulties_NN2 which_DDQ Wollen_NP1 hints_VVZ at_II when_RRQ he_PPHS1 comments_VVZ on_II '_GE the_AT '_GE simulationist_NN1 '_GE art_NN1 boom_NN1 of_IO the_AT eighties_MC2 and_CC its_APPGE debt_NN1 to_II the_AT dry_JJ husks_NN2 of_IO Situationist_JJ thought_NN1 '_GE ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ to_TO be_VBI regretted_VVN that_CST neither_DD1 of_IO these_DD2 books_NN2 examine_VV0 the_AT pluralism_NN1 of_IO the_AT '_GE simulationist_NN1 '_GE period_NN1 ._. 
To_II the_AT extent_NN1 that_CST the_AT Situationists_NN2 raised_VVD questions_NN2 about_II cultural_JJ hierarchies_NN2 and_CC the_AT '_GE supersession_NN1 '_GE of_IO art_NN1 ,_, how_RRQ should_VM we_PPIS2 judge_VVI the_AT Fallout_NN1 period_NN1 ?_? 
The_AT notion_NN1 of_IO progression_NN1 is_VBZ clearly_RR important_JJ in_II assessing_VVG this_DD1 work_NN1 ,_, especially_RR as_CSA the_AT temptation_NN1 to_TO isolate_VVI ,_, or_CC even_RR dismiss_VVI ,_, it_PPH1 as_II an_AT1 epiphenomenon_NN1 of_IO the_AT SI_FW is_VBZ strong_JJ ._. 
The_AT materials_NN2 displayed_VVN in_II the_AT exhibition_NN1 and_CC reproduced_VVN in_II the_AT Fallout_NN1 section_NN1 of_IO the_AT Scrapbook_NN1 no_RR21 doubt_RR22 express_VV0 ideas_NN2 about_II which_DDQ strong_JJ convictions_NN2 are_VBR held_VVN ._. 
What_DDQ are_VBR these_DD2 convictions_NN2 ,_, and_CC why_RRQ are_VBR they_PPHS2 not_XX articulated_VVN ?_? 
Why_RRQ were_VBDR the_AT exhibits_NN2 left_VVN to_TO speak_VVI for_IF themselves_PPX2 ?_? 
It_PPH1 seems_VVZ extraordinary_JJ that_CST ,_, given_VVN the_AT political_JJ fervour_NN1 of_IO the_AT Paris-based_JJ SI_FW fraction_NN1 in_II its_APPGE post-Lettrist_JJ phase_NN1 ,_, the_AT exhibition_NN1 should_VM have_VHI been_VBN so_RG solemnly_RR organised_VVN with_IW little_DA1 regard_NN1 to_II Debord_NP1 's_GE caveat_NN1 on_II auteurism_NN1 and_CC his_APPGE contempt_NN1 for_IF the_AT art_NN1 market_NN1 ._. 
Whatever_DDQV objectives_NN2 the_AT organisers_NN2 might_VM have_VHI had_VHN ,_, the_AT exhibition_NN1 turned_VVD out_RP to_TO be_VBI a_AT1 quite_RG normative_JJ curatorial_JJ project_NN1 ._. 
The_AT contradiction_NN1 is_VBZ perhaps_RR a_AT1 familiar_JJ one_PN1 ._. 
As_CSA Debord_NP1 has_VHZ commented_VVN :_: '_" This_DD1 society_NN1 signs_VVZ a_AT1 peace_NN1 treaty_NN1 with_IW its_APPGE most_RGT outspoken_JJ enemies_NN2 by_II giving_VVG them_PPHO2 a_AT1 spot_NN1 in_II the_AT spectacle_NN1 ._. 
'_" It_PPH1 is_VBZ noteworthy_JJ that_CST the_AT Situationists_NN2 have_VH0 produced_VVN nothing_PN1 in_II the_AT way_NN1 of_IO new_JJ projects_NN2 for_IF these_DD2 texts_NN2 ,_, nor_CC for_IF the_AT exhibition_NN1 ._. 
Predictably_RR they_PPHS2 kept_VVD their_APPGE distance_NN1 ._. 
At_II the_AT centre_NN1 of_IO the_AT re-grouped_JJ SI_FW in_II 1961_MC Bernstein_NP1 and_CC Debord_NP1 refused_VVD any_DD separation_NN1 between_II artistic_JJ and_CC political_JJ activity_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 was_VBDZ at_II this_DD1 time_NNT1 that_CST Asgerjorn_NP1 resigned_VVD his_APPGE membership_NN1 of_IO the_AT SI_FW ,_, although_CS he_PPHS1 continued_VVD to_TO finance_VVI it_PPH1 through_II the_AT sale_NN1 of_IO his_APPGE paintings_NN2 which_DDQ were_VBDR increasingly_RR in_II demand_NN1 in_II the_AT 1960s_MC2 ._. 
Thus_RR re-grouped_VVN ,_, the_AT SI_FW increased_VVD their_APPGE political_JJ activity_NN1 ,_, eliminating_VVG all_DB artistic_JJ production_NN1 except_CS in_II31 terms_II32 of_II33 agitational_JJ forms_NN2 which_DDQ meant_VVD ,_, essentially_RR ,_, the_AT use_NN1 of_IO dtourn_NN1 illustrations_NN2 in_II their_APPGE publications_NN2 ._. 
The_AT article_NN1 by_II Wollen_NP1 is_VBZ an_AT1 important_JJ piece_NN1 of_IO research_NN1 and_CC a_AT1 major_JJ contribution_NN1 to_II both_DB2 anthologies_NN2 ._. 
Despite_II its_APPGE usefulness_NN1 as_II an_AT1 introduction_NN1 to_II the_AT subject_NN1 ,_, it_PPH1 does_VDZ ,_, however_RR ,_, judiciously_RR avoid_VV0 overt_JJ criticism_NN1 of_IO its_APPGE subject_NN1 and_CC devotes_VVZ little_DA1 analysis_NN1 to_II the_AT SI_FW in_II its_APPGE mature_JJ phase_NN1 ._. 
Nevertheless_RR ,_, Wollen_NP1 presents_VVZ a_AT1 lucid_JJ account_NN1 of_IO the_AT movement_NN1 in_II its_APPGE formative_JJ period_NN1 and_CC makes_VVZ an_AT1 interesting_JJ case_NN1 for_IF Andr_NP1 Breton_NP1 as_II a_AT1 figure_NN1 of_IO some_DD distinction_NN1 in_II French_JJ intellectual_JJ history_NN1 ._. 
He_PPHS1 also_RR traces_VVZ the_AT Hegelian_JJ ,_, and_CC Lukcsian_JJ influences_NN2 on_II leftist_NN1 theories_NN2 in_II France_NP1 in_II the_AT heightened_JJ intellectual_JJ atmosphere_NN1 after_II the_AT Liberation_NN1 which_DDQ provided_VVD the_AT aesthetic_JJ and_CC political_JJ context_NN1 for_IF the_AT Situationists_NN2 ._. 
Apart_II21 from_II22 Wollen_NP1 's_GE historical_JJ and_CC theoretical_JJ essay_NN1 ,_, the_AT other_JJ major_JJ contribution_NN1 in_II the_AT Boston_NP1 text_NN1 is_VBZ Thomas_NP1 Y._NP1 Levin_NP1 's_GE '_GE Dismantling_VVG the_AT Spectacle_NN1 :_: The_AT Cinema_NN1 of_IO Guy_NP1 Debord_NP1 '_GE ._. 
This_DD1 is_VBZ again_RT a_AT1 comprehensive_JJ and_CC thoroughly_RR investigated_VVN article_NN1 and_CC is_VBZ probably_RR the_AT first_MD extended_JJ account_NN1 of_IO Situationist_JJ cinema_NN1 in_II English_NN1 ._. 
Levin_NN1 makes_VVZ a_AT1 special_JJ case_NN1 for_IF Debord_NP1 as_II a_AT1 film-maker_NN1 whose_DDQGE aim_NN1 was_VBDZ to_TO contribute_VVI to_II the_AT ultimate_JJ destruction_NN1 of_IO cinema_NN1 as_II a_AT1 spectacularist_NN1 medium_NN1 ._. 
Debord_NP1 's_GE cinema_NN1 for_IF Levin_NP1 is_VBZ a_AT1 paradigmatic_JJ vehicle_NN1 for_IF the_AT movement_NN1 's_VBZ '_GE destructive_JJ creativity_NN1 '_GE ._. 
The_AT main_JJ purpose_NN1 of_IO Levin_NP1 's_GE article_NN1 ,_, however_RR ,_, is_VBZ to_TO reclaim_VVI Debord_NP1 for_IF the_AT aesthetic_JJ discourse_NN1 of_IO avant-garde_JJ cinema_NN1 ._. 
For_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, he_PPHS1 identifies_VVZ Debord_NP1 as_II the_AT source_NN1 of_IO Godard_NP1 's_GE innovations_NN2 :_: '_GE Indeed_RR ,_, well_RR over_II a_AT1 decade_NNT1 before_II Godard_NP1 's_GE Vent_NN1 d'Est_NP1 ,_, Debord_NP1 was_VBDZ producing_VVG a_AT1 revolutionary_JJ ,_, materialist_NN1 '_GE counter-cinema_NN1 '_GE ._. 
'_" Not_XX having_VHG seen_VVN Debord_NP1 's_GE films_NN2 (_( he_PPHS1 refused_VVD screenings_NN2 at_II the_AT ICA_NP1 in_II London_NP1 )_) ,_, Levin_NP1 's_GE arguments_NN2 are_VBR in_II one_MC1 sense_NN1 untestable_JJ ;_; nevertheless_RR the_AT article_NN1 is_VBZ not_XX without_IW difficulties_NN2 ._. 
Defensively_RR ,_, he_PPHS1 observes_VVZ what_DDQ he_PPHS1 considers_VVZ to_TO be_VBI Debord_NP1 's_GE virtues_NN2 and_CC comments_NN2 on_II the_AT latter_DA 's_GE avoidance_NN1 of_IO ,_, as_CSA he_PPHS1 puts_VVZ it_PPH1 :_: '_GE the_AT various_JJ pitfalls_NN2 formalist_NN1 essentialism_NN1 ,_, aestheticist_NN1 myopia_NN1 ,_, politically_RR naive_JJ fetishism_NN1 of_IO reflexivity_NN1 ,_, and_RR31 so_RR32 on_RR33 ,_, typical_JJ of_IO certain_JJ avant-garde_JJ practices_NN2 linked_VVN to_II radical_JJ political_JJ agendas_NN2 ._. 
'_GE Nevertheless_RR ,_, Debord_NP1 's_GE place_NN1 within_II a_AT1 reified_JJ history_NN1 of_IO '_GE political_JJ modernism_NN1 '_GE is_VBZ assured_VVN ,_, more_RRR by_II virtue_NN1 of_IO what_DDQ is_VBZ claimed_VVN for_IF the_AT work_NN1 than_CSN by_II its_APPGE testing_NN1 in_II public_JJ Levin_NP1 admits_VVZ that_CST screenings_NN2 have_VH0 been_VBN rare_JJ ,_, especially_RR outside_II France_NP1 ._. 
Both_DB2 the_AT personality_NN1 and_CC the_AT work_NN1 remain_VV0 famously_RR obscure_VV0 in_II a_AT1 way_NN1 which_DDQ seems_VVZ almost_RR contrived_VVN ._. 
Further_RRR to_II this_DD1 ,_, Levin_NP1 claims_VVZ that_CST Debord_NP1 '_GE does_VDZ not_XX disparage_VVI pleasure_NN1 '_GE and_CC yet_RR argues_VVZ elsewhere_RL in_II the_AT essay_NN1 that_CST his_APPGE films_NN2 deliberately_RR refuse_VV0 to_TO make_VVI concessions_NN2 to_II the_AT viewer_NN1 ._. 
An_AT1 example_NN1 of_IO this_DD1 is_VBZ the_AT early_JJ Lettrist_JJ film_NN1 Hurlement_NN1 en_FW faveur_NN1 de_NP1 Sade_NP1 ,_, with_IW its_APPGE long_JJ periods_NN2 of_IO blank_JJ screen_NN1 and_CC extended_VVN silences_VVZ ._. 
As_CS31 far_CS32 as_CS33 one_PN1 can_VM assess_VVI the_AT merit_NN1 of_IO Levin_NP1 's_GE text_NN1 in_II31 relation_II32 to_II33 its_APPGE subject_NN1 ,_, it_PPH1 seems_VVZ somewhat_RR implausible_JJ that_CST Debord_NP1 can_VM be_VBI all_DB the_AT things_NN2 for_IF which_DDQ he_PPHS1 is_VBZ proclaimed_VVN ._. 
Whatever_DDQV defence_NN1 is_VBZ mounted_VVN ,_, it_PPH1 is_VBZ clear_JJ that_CST these_DD2 films_NN2 ,_, for_IF Levin_NP1 ,_, exist_VV0 as_RG auratic_JJ objects_NN2 ,_, and_CC Debord_NP1 their_APPGE auraticised_JJ progenitor_NN1 ._. 
Hence_RR the_AT mythologisation_NN1 of_IO Debord_NP1 by_II Levin_NP1 ,_, and_CC others_NN2 ,_, has_VHZ a_AT1 significant_JJ bearing_NN1 upon_II the_AT reception_NN1 of_IO his_APPGE work_NN1 ._. 
His_APPGE remoteness_NN1 and_CC the_AT scandal_NN1 and_CC intrigue_NN1 associated_VVN with_IW the_AT SI_FW have_VH0 significantly_RR contributed_VVN to_II the_AT enhancement_NN1 of_IO the_AT movement_NN1 's_GE reputation_NN1 ._. 
Levin_NP1 's_GE essay_NN1 ,_, interesting_JJ though_CS it_PPH1 is_VBZ ,_, achieves_VVZ little_DA1 more_DAR than_CSN assimilating_VVG Debord_NP1 into_II the_AT spectacularised_JJ history_NN1 of_IO the_AT avant-garde_JJ cinema_NN1 ._. 
His_APPGE hero-worship_JJ results_NN2 in_II him_PPHO1 reiterating_VVG the_AT same_DA claims_NN2 that_CST the_AT cinaste_NN1 makes_VVZ for_IF himself_PPX1 ._. 
In_II the_AT opening_NN1 sequence_NN1 of_IO Hurlement_NP1 ,_, as_CSA Levin_NP1 notes_NN2 ,_, Debord_NP1 provides_VVZ the_AT audience_NN1 with_IW a_AT1 reference_NN1 to_II a_AT1 cinematic_JJ tradition_NN1 in_II which_DDQ his_APPGE own_DA work_NN1 is_VBZ putatively_RR situated_VVN ._. 
The_AT tradition_NN1 includes_58 '_GE great_JJ landmarks_NN2 '_GE in_II film_NN1 history_NN1 from_II early_JJ '_GE genre_NN1 classics_NN2 ,_, (_( Levin_NP1 's_GE term_NN1 )_) ,_, Expressionist_NN1 ,_, Dada_NP1 ,_, Soviet_JJ cinema_NN1 of_IO the_AT 1920s_MC2 ,_, Surrealist_JJ ,_, Chaplin_NP1 ,_, Lettrist_JJ and_CC last_MD ,_, but_CCB not_XX least_RRT ,_, Debord_NP1 ._. 
Situationist_NN1 cinema_NN1 is_VBZ therefore_RR important_JJ ,_, indeed_RR ,_, self-important_JJ ,_, not_XX least_RRT because_CS it_PPH1 provides_58 '_GE an_AT1 alternative_JJ sort_NN1 of_IO cinematic_JJ activity_NN1 ,_, incompatible_JJ with_IW the_AT economy_NN1 of_IO the_AT spectacle_NN1 '_GE ._. 
Levin_NN1 earnestly_RR considers_VVZ Situationist_JJ film_NN1 to_TO be_VBI an_AT1 effective_JJ oppositional_JJ practice_NN1 ._. 
One_MC1 of_IO the_AT attractions_NN2 for_IF Levin_NP1 is_VBZ the_AT persistency_NN1 with_IW which_DDQ Debord_NP1 ,_, like_II the_AT Dadaists_NN2 before_II him_PPHO1 ,_, continued_VVD to_TO explore_VVI the_AT medium_NN1 ,_, whilst_CS contributing_VVG to_II its_APPGE eventual_JJ destruction_NN1 ._. 
Moreover_RR ,_, Levin_NP1 claims_VVZ that_CST the_AT Situationists_NN2 never_RR lost_VVN sight_NN1 of_IO their_APPGE own_DA contradictions_NN2 ,_, '_GE by_II consenting_VVG to_TO act_VVI in_II culture_NN1 '_GE as_II a_AT1 precondition_NN1 of_IO their_APPGE co-existence_NN1 in_II the_AT present_JJ order_NN1 ._. 
Nevertheless_RR ,_, cinema_NN1 ultimately_RR retains_VVZ a_AT1 relative_JJ autonomy_NN1 in_II Levin_NP1 's_GE tribute_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ like_II Hegel_NP1 's_GE notion_NN1 of_IO the_AT beautiful_JJ soul_NN1 which_DDQ denounces_VVZ the_AT world_NN1 from_II which_DDQ it_PPH1 has_VHZ withdrawn_VVN to_TO avoid_VVI having_VHG to_TO recognise_VVI the_AT extent_NN1 of_IO its_APPGE participation_NN1 in_II its_APPGE disorder_NN1 ._. 
Debord_NN1 ,_, as_CSA a_AT1 film-maker_NN1 ,_, and_CC Levin_NP1 ,_, as_CSA his_APPGE apologist_NN1 ,_, take_VV0 refuge_NN1 in_II the_AT transcendental_JJ space_NN1 of_IO autonomy_NN1 where_RRQ meanings_NN2 have_VH0 the_AT illusion_NN1 of_IO self-regulation_NN1 and_CC independence_NN1 of_IO the_AT totality_NN1 they_PPHS2 represent_VV0 ._. 
Debord_NN1 takes_VVZ up_RP his_APPGE place_NN1 (_( certainly_RR in_II Levin_NP1 's_GE account_NN1 )_) within_II the_AT lineage_NN1 of_IO modern_JJ masters_NN2 with_IW its_APPGE attendant_JJ construction_NN1 of_IO patriarchy_NN1 ,_, distinction_NN1 and_CC causal_JJ succession_NN1 ._. 
In_II Levin_NP1 's_GE essay_NN1 ,_, avant-garde_JJ cinema_NN1 is_VBZ assimilated_VVN into_II the_AT wider_JJR discourse_NN1 of_IO Modernist_JJ art_NN1 despite_II their_APPGE material_NN1 and_CC institutional_JJ differences_NN2 ._. 
One_MC1 of_IO the_AT pitfalls_NN2 of_IO this_DD1 is_VBZ that_DD1 different_JJ audiences_NN2 and_CC different_JJ modes_NN2 of_IO consumption_NN1 are_VBR contingencies_NN2 largely_RR ignored_VVN ._. 
Debord_NP1 's_GE apparent_JJ contempt_NN1 for_IF audiences_NN2 has_VHZ its_APPGE counterpart_NN1 in_II Levin_NP1 's_GE emphasis_NN1 upon_II origination_NN1 and_CC prestige_NN1 as_CSA paradigms_NN2 of_IO his_APPGE cultural_JJ history_NN1 ._. 
The_AT blurring_NN1 of_IO art_NN1 and_CC film_NN1 histories_NN2 leads_VVZ Levin_NP1 into_II the_AT murky_JJ waters_NN2 of_IO Situationist_JJ discourse_NN1 on_II art_NN1 ._. 
Suffice_VV0 it_PPH1 to_TO say_VVI that_CST this_DD1 discourse_NN1 is_VBZ generalising_VVG and_CC intemperate_NN1 ,_, and_CC lacks_VVZ depth_NN1 and_CC clarity_NN1 ._. 
Debord_NN1 ,_, for_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, proclaims_VVZ :_: '_GE The_AT critical_JJ position_NN1 later_RRR elaborated_VVN by_II the_AT Situationists_NN2 has_VHZ shown_VVN that_CST the_AT suppression_NN1 and_CC realization_NN1 of_IO art_NN1 are_VBR inseparable_JJ aspects_NN2 of_IO a_AT1 single_JJ supersession_NN1 of_IO art_NN1 ._. 
'_" There_EX is_VBZ some_DD sense_NN1 in_II this_DD1 comment_NN1 which_DDQ may_VM well_RR explain_VVI the_AT position_NN1 of_IO the_AT Situationists_NN2 at_II a_AT1 particular_JJ conjunction_NN1 ,_, but_CCB it_PPH1 is_VBZ a_AT1 sense_NN1 which_DDQ would_VM also_RR explain_VVI earlier_JJR avant-garde_NN1 trends_NN2 in_II art_NN1 (_( if_CS not_XX cinema_NN1 )_) since_CS ,_, say_VV0 ,_, Futurism_NN1 ._. 
Moreover_RR ,_, the_AT notion_NN1 of_IO art_NN1 's_VBZ '_GE single_JJ supersession_NN1 '_GE ,_, an_AT1 histrionic_JJ claim_NN1 ,_, would_VM benefit_VVI from_II some_DD kind_NN1 of_IO historical_JJ and_CC theoretical_JJ contextualisation_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 sounds_VVZ important_JJ but_CCB in_II fact_NN1 is_VBZ an_AT1 impenetrable_JJ statement_NN1 ._. 
Further_JJR clarification_NN1 might_VM also_RR be_VBI required_VVN as_II21 to_II22 how_RRQ the_AT Situationist_JJ negation_NN1 of_IO art_NN1 (_( and_CC cinema_NN1 )_) related_VVD to_II the_AT wider_JJR sphere_NN1 of_IO cultural-political_JJ struggle_NN1 ._. 
The_AT critique_NN1 of_IO art_NN1 as_II an_AT1 institution_NN1 is_VBZ continuous_JJ with_IW earlier_JJR formations_NN2 (_( including_II early_JJ Surrealism_NN1 and_CC Russian_JJ Constructivism_NN1 )_) ,_, but_CCB Levin_NP1 remains_VVZ unclear_JJ in_II his_APPGE definition_NN1 of_IO Debord_NP1 's_GE avant-gardism_NN1 ._. 
For_IF Lukcs_NN2 and_CC Adorno_NP1 the_AT concept_NN1 of_IO the_AT avant-garde_NN1 was_VBDZ a_AT1 touchstone_NN1 :_: for_IF the_AT one_PN1 it_PPH1 was_VBDZ negative_JJ and_CC decadent_NN1 ,_, for_IF the_AT other_JJ positive_JJ and_CC progressive_JJ ._. 
In_II Levin_NP1 's_GE account_NN1 of_IO Debord_NP1 ,_, his_APPGE subject_NN1 appears_VVZ to_TO hold_VVI both_DB2 positions_NN2 at_RR21 once_RR22 ._. 
More_RGR specifically_RR ,_, on_II the_AT issue_NN1 of_IO cultural_JJ hierarchies_NN2 and_CC class_NN1 relations_NN2 the_AT Situationists_NN2 tried_VVD to_TO distance_VVI themselves_PPX2 from_II bourgeois_JJ notions_NN2 of_IO progress_NN1 and_CC their_APPGE equivalence_NN1 in_II the_AT neo-avant-garde_NN1 of_IO the_AT post-war_JJ period_NN1 ._. 
The_AT SI_FW thus_RR rejected_JJ '_GE mechanical_JJ becoming_JJ ,_, with_IW its_APPGE notions_NN2 of_IO progress_NN1 ,_, merit_NN1 and_CC causal_JJ succession_NN1 '_GE ._. 
This_DD1 statement_NN1 reflects_VVZ the_AT resistance_NN1 of_IO the_AT SI_FW to_II piecemeal_JJ historicism_NN1 out_II21 of_II22 which_DDQ lineages_NN2 are_VBR made_VVN ,_, but_CCB in_II Levin_NP1 's_GE history_NN1 the_AT independent_JJ achievements_NN2 of_IO Debord_NP1 as_II a_AT1 film-maker_NN1 eventually_RR collapses_VVZ into_II it_PPH1 ._. 
In_II fairness_NN1 it_PPH1 has_VHZ to_TO be_VBI said_VVN that_CST Levin_NP1 tries_VVZ to_TO isolate_VVI Debord_NP1 from_II a_AT1 purely_RR formal_JJ Modernism_NN1 ,_, and_CC from_II naive_JJ realism_NN1 (_( the_AT politics_NN1 of_IO the_AT signified_JJ )_) ._. 
He_PPHS1 does_VDZ this_DD1 by_II proclaiming_VVG ,_, a_AT1 '_GE third_MD avant-garde_NN1 '_GE ,_, which_DDQ avoids_VVZ the_AT major_JJ pitfalls_NN2 (_( of_IO the_AT '_GE two_MC avant-gardes_NN2 '_GE )_) and_CC secures_VVZ some_DD theoretical_JJ authority_NN1 for_IF Debord_NP1 ._. 
However_RR ,_, because_CS this_DD1 is_VBZ not_XX adequately_RR related_VVN to_II the_AT political_JJ ideals_NN2 of_IO the_AT SI_FW there_RL is_VBZ no_AT analysis_NN1 of_IO the_AT projected_JJ means_NN (_( theoretical_JJ or_CC practical_JJ )_) by_II which_DDQ the_AT sublation_NN1 of_IO art_NN1 in_II the_AT praxis_NN1 of_IO life_NN1 might_VM be_VBI achieved_VVN ._. 
The_AT reverential_JJ tone_NN1 of_IO Levin_NP1 's_GE text_NN1 poses_VVZ a_AT1 problem_NN1 which_DDQ the_AT movement_NN1 's_GE survivors_NN2 ,_, I_PPIS1 imagine_VV0 ,_, would_VM be_VBI quick_JJ to_TO condemn_VVI ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ ,_, in_RR21 short_RR22 ,_, uncritical_JJ in_II the_AT sense_NN1 of_IO failing_VVG to_TO site_VVI Debord_NP1 's_GE films_NN2 within_II an_AT1 adequate_JJ theoretical_JJ discourse_NN1 ._. 
Levin_NN1 objectifies_VVZ his_APPGE subject_NN1 through_II the_AT use_NN1 of_IO an_AT1 argument_NN1 which_DDQ leaves_VVZ the_AT SI_FW unexplained_JJ as_II a_AT1 revolutionary_JJ organisation_NN1 with_IW the_AT potentiality_NN1 of_IO reflecting_VVG ,_, by_II its_APPGE own_DA methods_NN2 ,_, a_AT1 radical_JJ social_JJ transformation_NN1 ._. 
What_DDQ he_PPHS1 provides_VVZ is_VBZ the_AT missing_JJ chapter_NN1 in_II the_AT secret_JJ history_NN1 of_IO the_AT cinema_NN1 ,_, the_AT missing_JJ link_NN1 between_II Berlin_NP1 Dada_NP1 and_CC postmodernism_NN1 ._. 
As_CSA with_IW other_JJ contributors_NN2 ,_, exaggerated_JJ claims_NN2 are_VBR made_VVN for_IF dtournement_NN1 (_( the_AT communication_NN1 which_DDQ contains_VVZ its_APPGE own_DA critique_NN1 )_) ,_, firstly_RR because_CS it_PPH1 was_VBDZ an_AT1 inheritance_NN1 from_II Cubism_NN1 and_CC Dada_NP1 ,_, and_CC secondly_RR ,_, because_CS ,_, as_CSA the_AT exhibition_NN1 shows_NN2 ,_, its_APPGE deployment_NN1 by_II '_GE pro-situs_NN1 '_GE has_VHZ made_VVN of_IO it_PPH1 a_AT1 commonplace_JJ ,_, popularised_VVN in_II punk_NN1 fanzines_NN2 ,_, and_CC '_GE Biff_NP1 '_GE postcards_NN2 etc_RA ._. 
The_AT Situationists_NN2 '_GE activities_NN2 within_II the_AT cultural_JJ sphere_NN1 constituted_VVD an_AT1 attempt_NN1 to_TO create_VVI a_AT1 unified_JJ range_NN1 of_IO activities_NN2 which_DDQ functioned_VVD as_II a_AT1 radical_JJ critique_NN1 of_IO the_AT conventional_JJ boundaries_NN2 between_II specialisations_NN2 embedded_VVN in_II the_AT institutions_NN2 ,_, practices_NN2 and_CC agencies_NN2 of_IO modern_JJ life_NN1 ._. 
The_AT fragmented_JJ appearance_NN1 of_IO their_APPGE work_NN1 ,_, especially_RR its_APPGE Lettrist_JJ phase_NN1 ,_, their_APPGE repudiation_NN1 of_IO conventional_JJ skills_NN2 and_CC scholarly_JJ manners_NN2 (_( evidenced_VVN in_II their_APPGE use_NN1 of_IO personal_JJ insults_NN2 )_) have_VH0 been_VBN absorbed_VVN by_II subcultural_JJ milieux_NN1 and_CC in_II due_JJ course_NN1 adapted_VVN by_II the_AT culture_NN1 industries_NN2 ._. 
The_AT influence_NN1 of_IO the_AT Situationists_NN2 is_VBZ clearly_RR demonstrated_VVN (_( if_CS overstated_VVN )_) in_II these_DD2 books_NN2 ._. 
If_CS the_AT historical_JJ trajectory_NN1 of_IO the_AT Scrapbook_NN1 is_VBZ followed_VVN (_( SI_FW through_II Fluxus_NP1 ,_, Heatwave_NP1 ,_, King_NNB Mob_NP1 ,_, Jamie_NP1 Reid_NP1 ,_, Vivienne_NP1 Westwood_NP1 ,_, and_CC the_AT Sex_NN1 Pistols_NN2 )_) the_AT Situationist_JJ role_NN1 for_IF the_AT intellectual_NN1 as_II an_AT1 informed_JJ but_CCB passionate_JJ critic_NN1 gives_VVZ way_NN1 to_II philistine_NN1 incitements_NN2 to_II violence_NN1 (_( typified_VVN by_II King_NNB Mob_NP1 in_II Britain_NP1 ,_, the_AT Motherfuckers_NN2 in_II the_AT USA_NP1 ,_, and_CC also_RR indirectly_RR the_AT punk_NN1 phenomenon_NN1 )_) but_CCB more_RGR commonly_RR a_AT1 laidback_NN1 and_CC philosophically_RR weak_JJ critique_NN1 of_IO everyday_JJ life_NN1 ._. 
The_AT political_JJ and_CC philosophical_JJ origins_NN2 of_IO Situationist_JJ thought_NN1 to_II a_AT1 large_JJ degree_NN1 derives_VVZ from_II Marx_NP1 's_GE critique_NN1 of_IO alienation_NN1 and_CC commodity_NN1 fetishism_NN1 ,_, Lukcs_NP2 's_GE development_NN1 of_IO this_DD1 critique_NN1 ,_, and_CC the_AT Marxist-existentialism_NN1 of_IO Sartre_NP1 and_CC Henri_NP1 Lefebvre_NP1 ._. 
The_AT rejection_NN1 of_IO liberal_JJ democracy_NN1 and_CC bureaucratic_JJ Marxism_NN1 led_VVD the_AT Situationists_NN2 away_II21 from_II22 dominant_JJ political_JJ organisations_NN2 and_CC towards_II libertarian_NN1 and_CC syndicalist_NN1 influences_NN2 ._. 
The_AT ideas_NN2 of_IO Anton_NP1 Pannekoek_NP1 which_DDQ emerged_VVD with_IW the_AT publication_NN1 of_IO his_APPGE Workers_NN2 '_GE Council_NN1 after_II World_NN1 War_NN1 One_PN1 provided_VVD a_AT1 ready-made_JJ model_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 non-hierarchical_JJ political_JJ system_NN1 ._. 
The_AT simple_JJ faith_NN1 conveyed_VVN in_II Pannekoek_NP1 's_GE treatise_NN1 recalls_VVZ earlier_JJR utopian_JJ writing_NN1 ,_, and_CC contrasts_VVZ with_IW the_AT strident_JJ and_CC acerbic_JJ tone_NN1 of_IO Situationist_JJ writing_NN1 ._. 
With_IW the_AT exception_NN1 of_IO Wollen_NP1 ,_, the_AT contributors_NN2 to_II the_AT Scrapbook_NN1 and_CC the_AT Boston_NP1 text_NN1 convey_VV0 little_JJ concern_NN1 for_IF the_AT forms_NN2 of_IO political_JJ organisation_NN1 espoused_VVN by_II the_AT Situationists_NN2 ,_, and_CC it_PPH1 is_VBZ perhaps_RR symptomatic_JJ of_IO their_APPGE interest_NN1 in_II the_AT SI_FW as_II a_AT1 purely_RR aesthetic_JJ phenomenon_NN1 ._. 
The_AT SI_FW clearly_RR endeavoured_VVN to_TO produce_VVI a_AT1 revolutionary_JJ critique_NN1 of_IO modern_JJ life_NN1 ,_, and_CC towards_II this_DD1 end_NN1 devised_VVD a_AT1 convulsive_JJ rhetoric_NN1 and_CC an_AT1 inventive_JJ vocabulary_NN1 ._. 
The_AT revival_NN1 of_IO interest_NN1 in_II its_APPGE ideas_NN2 might_VM be_VBI explained_VVN by_II this_DD1 ,_, rather_CS21 than_CS22 by_II its_APPGE standing_NN1 as_II a_AT1 political_JJ organisation_NN1 ._. 
The_AT remoteness_NN1 of_IO the_AT movement_NN1 from_II working-class_JJ experience_NN1 guaranteed_VVD the_AT survival_NN1 of_IO its_APPGE bohemian_JJ image_NN1 ._. 
Its_APPGE re-emergence_NN1 as_CSA spectacle_NN1 relates_VVZ more_RGR visibly_RR to_II its_APPGE cult_NN1 status_NN1 and_CC the_AT nostalgic_JJ allure_NN1 of_IO fifties_MC2 Paris_NP1 ;_; a_AT1 marginalised_JJ and_CC dissolute_JJ existence_NN1 in_II the_AT company_NN1 of_IO exotic_JJ friends_NN2 and_CC of_IO romantic_JJ places_NN2 with_IW beautiful_JJ names_NN2 ._. 
The_AT Boston_NP1 text_NN1 reproduces_VVZ old_JJ photographs_NN2 of_IO founding_VVG members_NN2 ._. 
The_AT gamine_NN1 looks_VVZ of_IO Bernstein_NP1 and_CC the_AT neatness_NN1 of_IO Debord_NP1 have_VH0 an_AT1 aesthetic_JJ relevance_NN1 which_DDQ signifies_VVZ a_AT1 rather_RG vague_JJ ,_, but_CCB nevertheless_RR compelling_JJ ,_, reason_NN1 for_IF their_APPGE inclusion_NN1 in_II the_AT text_NN1 ._. 
They_PPHS2 are_VBR not_XX merely_RR documentation_NN1 ._. 
They_PPHS2 are_VBR in_II fact_NN1 significant_JJ elements_NN2 in_II the_AT story_NN1 of_IO '_GE Situationism_NN1 '_GE which_DDQ is_VBZ the_AT subtext_NN1 of_IO the_AT book_NN1 ._. 
The_AT political_JJ reticence_NN1 evident_JJ in_II these_DD2 volumes_NN2 is_VBZ indicated_VVN by_II a_AT1 degree_NN1 of_IO randomness_NN1 in_II the_AT choice_NN1 of_IO materials_NN2 and_CC by_II implication_NN1 a_AT1 commitment_NN1 to_II the_AT more_RGR '_GE expressive_JJ '_GE or_CC irrationalist_NN1 side_NN1 of_IO their_APPGE work_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ ,_, for_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, revealing_VVG that_CST there_EX is_VBZ no_AT indication_NN1 in_II either_DD1 book_NN1 of_IO the_AT Situationist_JJ commitment_NN1 to_II political_JJ struggles_NN2 in_II the_AT Third_MD World_NN1 and_CC their_APPGE critique_NN1 of_IO imperialism_NN1 ._. 
The_AT introductions_NN2 in_II both_DB2 books_NN2 are_VBR anodyne_JJ and_CC brief_JJ ._. 
The_AT historical_JJ significance_NN1 of_IO the_AT SI_FW is_VBZ not_XX questioned_VVN ,_, and_CC the_AT importance_NN1 of_IO the_AT movement_NN1 is_VBZ asserted_VVN largely_RR on_II the_AT basis_NN1 of_IO aesthetic_JJ innovations_NN2 which_DDQ derive_VV0 from_II the_AT Lettrist_JJ period_NN1 prior_II21 to_II22 the_AT founding_NN1 of_IO the_AT SI_FW ._. 
Dtournement_NN1 and_CC drive_NN1 (_( drifting_VVG )_) are_VBR thus_RR reclaimed_VVN in_II31 terms_II32 of_II33 their_APPGE contemporary_JJ relevance_NN1 ,_, or_CC rather_RR for_IF the_AT extent_NN1 to_II which_DDQ they_PPHS2 influenced_VVD punk_NN1 and_CC the_AT camp_NN1 and_CC erudite_JJ artistic_JJ radicalism_NN1 which_DDQ exploited_VVD it_PPH1 ._. 
With_IW the_AT exception_NN1 of_IO Levin_NP1 's_GE extended_JJ analysis_NN1 of_IO film_NN1 ,_, neither_RR the_AT products_NN2 nor_CC any_DD specific_JJ agitations_NN2 of_IO the_AT Situationists_NN2 and_CC their_APPGE epigones_NN2 are_VBR subject_II21 to_II22 critical_JJ reassessment_NN1 ._. 
The_AT short_JJ commentaries_NN2 and_CC comic_JJ imagery_NN1 in_II the_AT British_JJ section_NN1 of_IO the_AT Scrapbook_NN1 are_VBR largely_RR printed_JJ ephemera_NN1 with_IW unserious_JJ political_JJ pretensions_NN2 ._. 
Some_DD of_IO it_PPH1 is_VBZ amusing_JJ ,_, some_DD of_IO it_PPH1 pretentious_JJ drivel_NN1 ._. 
Clearly_RR much_DA1 of_IO the_AT material_NN1 is_VBZ unsupportable_JJ and_CC there_EX is_VBZ a_AT1 sense_NN1 in_II which_DDQ this_DD1 is_VBZ self-evident_JJ in_CS21 that_CS22 the_AT Scrapbook_NN1 is_VBZ styled_VVN as_II an_AT1 '_GE anti-document_NN1 '_GE which_DDQ ,_, like_II the_AT films_NN2 of_IO Debord_NP1 ,_, is_VBZ co-extensive_JJ with_IW the_AT equally_RR unsupportable_JJ and_CC qualitatively_RR diminished_VVN world_NN1 to_II which_DDQ it_PPH1 relates_VVZ ._. 
The_AT temptation_NN1 is_VBZ to_TO view_VVI these_DD2 publications_NN2 and_CC the_AT exhibition_NN1 as_II a_AT1 proliferation_NN1 of_IO surfaces_NN2 which_DDQ are_VBR in_II a_AT1 sense_NN1 pretty_RG vacant_JJ reminders_NN2 that_CST despite_II the_AT essentially_RR teleological_JJ nature_NN1 of_IO the_AT Situationist_JJ project_NN1 ,_, it_PPH1 is_VBZ now_RT immobilised_VVN and_CC its_APPGE documents_NN2 merely_RR a_AT1 contribution_NN1 to_II culture_NN1 as_II the_AT spectacular_JJ remains_NN2 of_IO an_AT1 abandoned_JJ revolutionary_JJ ideal_NN1 ._. 
The_AT tendency_NN1 is_VBZ to_TO ignore_VVI value_NN1 distinctions_NN2 and_CC to_TO undermine_VVI qualitative_JJ difference_NN1 so_CS21 that_CS22 popular_JJ and_CC high_JJ art_NN1 genres_NN2 are_VBR presented_VVN side_NN1 by_II side_NN1 in_II a_AT1 unified_JJ space_NN1 or_CC text_NN1 ._. 
There_EX is_VBZ of_RR21 course_RR22 an_AT1 inside_JJ knowledge_NN1 which_DDQ makes_VVZ this_58 '_GE coherent_JJ '_GE for_IF those_DD2 in_II31 possession_II32 of_II33 it_PPH1 ._. 
This_DD1 presupposes_VVZ the_AT same_DA audience_NN1 separations_NN2 ,_, the_AT same_DA hierarchies_NN2 ,_, the_AT same_DA educational_JJ and_CC class_NN1 difference_NN1 as_CSA before_RT ._. 
Frank_NP1 Mort_NP1 has_VHZ commented_VVN on_II this_DD1 kind_NN1 of_IO separation_NN1 between_II the_AT new_JJ intellectuals_NN2 who_PNQS are_VBR happy_JJ and_CC confident_JJ to_TO mix_VVI genre_NN1 and_CC ignore_VVI qualitative_JJ and_CC semantic_JJ difference_NN1 '_GE because_CS they_PPHS2 already_RR know_VV0 the_AT map_NN1 of_IO Western_JJ culture_NN1 '_GE and_CC are_VBR distinct_JJ from_II those_DD2 '_" who_PNQS do_VD0 not_XX carry_VVI with_IW them_PPHO2 those_DD2 levels_NN2 of_IO cultural_JJ capital_NN1 ._. 
'_" He_PPHS1 adds_VVZ to_II this_DD1 :_: '_GE In_II that_DD1 sense_NN1 postmodern_JJ discourse_NN1 with_IW its_APPGE relativism_NN1 ,_, its_APPGE denial_NN1 of_IO grand_JJ narratives_NN2 and_CC its_APPGE refusal_NN1 of_IO questions_NN2 of_IO value_NN1 ,_, is_VBZ a_AT1 world_NN1 tailor-made_JJ for_IF the_AT new_JJ metropolitan_JJ intellectual_JJ cadres_NN2 ._. 
'_" It_PPH1 therefore_RR seems_VVZ that_DD1 '_VBZ in_II a_AT1 purely_RR negative_JJ way_NN1 '_GE the_AT silence_NN1 over_II the_AT question_NN1 of_IO meaning_VVG in_II the_AT Boston_NP1 text_NN1 and_CC in_II the_AT Scrapbook_NN1 is_VBZ perhaps_RR not_XX surprising_JJ it_PPH1 is_VBZ an_AT1 historically_RR appropriate_JJ response_NN1 to_II the_AT disappearance_NN1 of_IO the_AT SI_FW ._. 
'_" There_EX is_VBZ a_AT1 sorrow_NN1 in_II the_AT Zeitgeist_NN1 '_GE bemoans_VVZ Lyotard_NP1 ,_, an_AT1 inappropriateness_NN1 in_II the_AT metaphor_NN1 of_IO the_AT '_GE avant-garde_NN1 '_GE ,_, and_CC consequently_RR a_AT1 kind_NN1 of_IO absurdity_NN1 attaching_VVG to_II the_AT belief_NN1 in_II art_NN1 as_II a_AT1 prefiguration_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 global_JJ collectivist_NN1 future_NN1 ._. 
That_DD1 sorrow_NN1 hangs_VVZ over_II the_AT discontinued_JJ struggles_NN2 of_IO the_AT SI_FW ._. 
The_AT belligerence_NN1 of_IO their_APPGE message_NN1 and_CC the_AT violence_NN1 of_IO their_APPGE appeal_NN1 to_II negation_NN1 and_CC revolt_NN1 is_VBZ now_RT passed_VVN over_RP in_II silence_NN1 and_CC their_APPGE works_NN appear_VV0 as_CS21 if_CS22 they_PPHS2 were_VBDR blank_JJ sheets_NN2 to_II the_AT privileged_JJ audiences_NN2 of_IO the_AT present_JJ day_NNT1 ._. 
II_MC What_DDQ I_PPIS1 have_VH0 argued_VVN so_RG far_RR is_VBZ that_CST the_AT Situationists_NN2 are_VBR ill-served_JJ by_II these_DD2 publications_NN2 ,_, and_CC that_CST this_DD1 is_VBZ partly_RR due_II21 to_II22 the_AT influence_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 certain_JJ pessimism_NN1 which_DDQ haunts_VVZ contemporary_JJ cultural_JJ politics_NN1 ._. 
What_DDQ I_PPIS1 want_VV0 to_TO argue_VVI now_RT is_VBZ that_CST there_EX is_VBZ a_AT1 sense_NN1 in_II which_DDQ the_AT symptom_NN1 of_IO this_DD1 pessimism_NN1 exist_VV0 in_II the_AT movement_NN1 itself_PPX1 ._. 
The_AT Situationists_NN2 were_VBDR idealists_NN2 in_II the_AT sense_NN1 that_CST they_PPHS2 perceived_VVD themselves_PPX2 apart_II21 from_II22 the_AT spectacle_NN1 ,_, always_RR managing_VVG to_TO be_VBI '_GE other-than-spectacular_JJ '_GE ,_, as_CSA Levin_NP1 puts_VVZ it_PPH1 ,_, so_CS21 that_CS22 this_DD1 became_VVD a_AT1 pre-condition_NN1 of_IO Situationist_JJ practice_NN1 ._. 
Their_APPGE self-image_NN1 was_VBDZ that_DD1 of_IO the_AT chosen_JJ few_DA2 for_IF whom_PNQO the_AT spectacle_NN1 provided_VVD an_AT1 inexhaustible_JJ supply_NN1 of_IO objects_NN2 (_( and_CC people_NN )_) to_TO hate_VVI ,_, and_CC whilst_CS the_AT apparent_JJ ease_NN1 with_IW which_DDQ they_PPHS2 targeted_VVD and_CC disposed_JJ of_IO their_APPGE opposition_NN1 often_RR made_VVN good_JJ copy_NN1 (_( the_AT endless_JJ adventure_NN1 ,_, the_AT scandal_NN1 ,_, etc._RA )_) ,_, there_EX is_VBZ a_AT1 sense_NN1 in_II which_DDQ the_AT hectoring_JJ tone_NN1 of_IO their_APPGE documents_NN2 became_VVD repetitive_JJ and_CC wearisome_JJ ._. 
The_AT effusions_NN2 of_IO Vaneigem_NP1 have_VH0 an_AT1 air_NN1 of_IO mystical_JJ revelation_NN1 which_DDQ is_VBZ even_RR more_RGR intense_JJ in_II recent_JJ publications_NN2 ._. 
Debord_NP1 's_GE political_JJ fatigue_NN1 is_VBZ less_RGR evident_JJ but_CCB his_APPGE filmwork_NN1 has_VHZ finished_VVN and_CC he_PPHS1 refuses_VVZ to_TO permit_VVI distribution_NN1 and_CC screening_NN1 of_IO his_APPGE work_NN1 in_II this_DD1 medium_NN1 ._. 
Bernstein_NN1 is_VBZ now_RT a_AT1 journalist_NN1 and_CC works_NN for_IF a_AT1 French_JJ newspaper_NN1 ._. 
There_EX are_VBR ,_, I_PPIS1 think_VV0 ,_, just_RR three_MC statements_NN2 which_DDQ count_VV0 as_RG unequivocally_RR critical_JJ comments_NN2 on_II SI_FW in_II the_AT Scrapbook_NN1 ._. 
They_PPHS2 appear_VV0 in_II the_AT documents_NN2 section_NN1 and_CC therefore_RR do_VD0 not_XX ,_, we_PPIS2 may_VM take_VVI it_PPH1 ,_, represent_VV0 the_AT views_NN2 of_IO the_AT editors_NN2 ._. 
Firstly_RR ,_, Art_NN1 &amp;_CC Language_NN1 's_GE piece_NN1 '_GE Ralph_NP1 the_AT Situationist_NN1 '_GE expresses_VVZ considerable_JJ misgivings_NN2 about_II the_AT Situationist_JJ project_NN1 :_: '_GE The_AT texts_NN2 are_VBR effectively_RR incorrigible_JJ and_CC self_NN1 insulating_NN1 ..._... '_" ;_; '_" ..._... bland_JJ incoherence_NN1 a_AT1 self-contradictory_JJ absurdity_NN1 a_AT1 moral_JJ ground_NN1 to_TO give_VVI up_RP reading_VVG and_CC remembering_VVG ..._... '_GE ,_, and_RR31 so_RR32 on_RR33 ._. 
Whatever_DDQV gave_VVD Francis_NP1 ,_, or_CC whoever_PNQV it_PPH1 was_VBDZ ,_, the_AT idea_NN1 that_CST Art_NN1 $_NN Language_NN1 had_VHD anything_PN1 to_TO do_VDI with_IW the_AT Situationists_NN2 ?_? 
On_II what_DDQ basis_NN1 is_VBZ this_DD1 reference_NN1 made_VVN ?_? 
There_EX is_VBZ no_AT evidence_NN1 of_IO SI_FW influence_VV0 in_II their_APPGE work_NN1 ,_, which_DDQ has_VHZ quite_RG different_JJ intellectual_JJ roots_NN2 ,_, and_CC the_AT article_NN1 itself_PPX1 leaves_VVZ no_AT doubt_NN1 as_CSA to_II the_AT extent_NN1 of_IO their_APPGE disapprobation_NN1 ._. 
Furthermore_RR ,_, the_AT inclusion_NN1 of_IO three_MC early_JJ works_NN by_II the_AT group_NN1 in_II the_AT exhibition_NN1 (_( dating_VVG from_II the_AT late_JJ sixties_MC2 )_) reveals_VVZ a_AT1 kind_RR21 of_RR22 make_VV0 believe_VVI idea_NN1 about_II an_AT1 A_ZZ1 $_NN L/SI_FU connection_NN1 ._. 
There_EX was_VBDZ no_AT such_DA connection_NN1 ._. 
As_RG late_RR as_CSA 1970_MC members_NN2 of_IO A_ZZ1 $_NN L_ZZ1 ,_, to_II my_APPGE knowledge_NN1 ,_, had_VHD never_RR heard_VVN of_IO Debord_NP1 ,_, and_CC if_CS they_PPHS2 had_VHD were_VBDR not_XX the_AT least_RRT bit_VVD interested_JJ ._. 
The_AT arbitrary_JJ inclusion_NN1 of_IO artworks_NN2 in_II the_AT exhibition_NN1 is_VBZ further_JJR evidence_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 curatorial_JJ effort_NN1 to_TO construct_VVI a_AT1 narrative_NN1 of_IO '_GE situationism_NN1 '_GE ._. 
The_AT case_NN1 for_IF Merz_NP1 ,_, Pistoletto_NP1 and_CC Buren_NN1 may_VM be_VBI different_JJ ,_, but_CCB it_PPH1 is_VBZ not_XX unreasonable_JJ to_TO expect_VVI a_AT1 rationale_NN1 for_IF the_AT proclaimed_JJ indebtedness_NN1 of_IO Arte_NP1 Povera_NP1 and_CC Conceptual_JJ Art_NN1 to_II the_AT Situationists_NN2 ._. 
Nowhere_RL in_II these_DD2 publications_NN2 are_VBR these_DD2 connections_NN2 argued_VVN for_IF :_: they_PPHS2 are_VBR merely_RR dogmatically_RR asserted_VVN ._. 
Given_VVN the_AT withering_JJ contempt_NN1 expressed_VVN by_II the_AT Situationists_NN2 for_IF '_GE prositus_NN1 '_GE ,_, one_PN1 shudders_VVZ to_TO think_VVI what_DDQ Debord_NP1 et_RA21 al._RA22 are_VBR going_VVGK to_TO make_VVI of_IO the_AT '_GE quasi-situationists_NN2 '_GE discovered_VVD in_II America_NP1 by_II Elisabeth_NP1 Sussmann_NP1 ._. 
On_II the_AT basis_NN1 of_IO her_APPGE understanding_NN1 ,_, it_PPH1 appears_VVZ that_CST any_DD artist_NN1 in_II the_AT USA_NP1 who_PNQS uses_VVZ the_AT conventions_NN2 of_IO the_AT mass_JJ media_NN in_II such_DA a_AT1 way_NN1 as_CSA to_TO produce_VVI a_AT1 critique_NN1 of_IO the_AT media_NN (_( and_CC I_PPIS1 can_VM think_VVI of_IO a_AT1 good_JJ many_DA2 )_) is_VBZ veritably_RR a_AT1 '_GE quasi-situationist_NN1 '_GE ._. 
The_AT desire_NN1 to_TO create_VVI a_AT1 pseudo-history_NN1 of_IO the_AT movement_NN1 's_GE afterlife_NN1 may_VM be_VBI good_JJ for_IF business_NN1 ,_, and_CC may_VM have_VHI provided_VVN extra_JJ material_NN1 for_IF the_AT book_NN1 (_( I_PPIS1 refer_VV0 to_II the_AT Boston_NP1 text_NN1 ,_, see_VV0 pp._NNU2 1013_MC )_) but_CCB it_PPH1 is_VBZ not_XX in_II31 keeping_II32 with_II33 the_AT purer_JJR aims_NN2 of_IO the_AT Situationists_NN2 outlined_VVN elsewhere_RL in_II these_DD2 and_CC other_JJ texts_NN2 ._. 
The_AT second_MD critical_JJ comment_NN1 I_PPIS1 came_VVD across_RL in_II the_AT Scrapbook_NN1 was_VBDZ George_NP1 Steiner_NP1 's_GE statement_NN1 from_II the_AT Sunday_NPD1 Times_NNT2 in_II 1967_MC ._. 
Steiner_NP1 accepted_VVD that_CST the_AT Situationists_NN2 had_VHD identified_VVN and_CC accurately_RR described_VVN the_AT emptiness_NN1 of_IO everyday_JJ life_NN1 and_CC even_RR accepts_VVZ their_APPGE pleas_NN2 for_IF subversion_NN1 ,_, but_CCB was_VBDZ very_RG sour_JJ about_II what_DDQ he_PPHS1 described_VVD as_II the_AT '_GE depressingly_RR banal_JJ '_GE prescriptions_NN2 of_IO Debord_NP1 and_CC the_AT '_GE turgid_JJ creed_NN1 '_GE of_IO Vaneigem_NN1 ._. 
Christopher_NP1 Gray_NP1 ,_, one_MC1 of_IO the_AT small_JJ number_NN1 of_IO English_JJ members_NN2 of_IO the_AT SI_FW ,_, is_VBZ the_AT third_MD commentator_NN1 I_PPIS1 found_VVD to_TO be_VBI not_XX entirely_RR sympathetic_JJ ._. 
His_APPGE comments_NN2 come_VV0 from_II an_AT1 anthology_NN1 of_IO Situationist_JJ writings_NN2 he_PPHS1 edited_VVD in_II 1974_MC ._. 
Gray_NP1 's_GE comments_NN2 evoke_VV0 a_AT1 kind_NN1 of_IO mystical_JJ disenchantment_NN1 with_IW the_AT movement_NN1 which_DDQ he_PPHS1 found_VVD to_TO be_VBI too_RR focused_VVN on_II an_AT1 intellectual_JJ critique_NN1 of_IO society_NN1 ._. 
'_" There_EX was_58 '_GE ,_, he_PPHS1 complains_VVZ ,_, '_GE no_AT concern_NN1 whatever_DDQV with_IW either_RR emotions_NN2 or_CC the_AT body_NN1 ._. 
The_AT SI_FW thought_VVD you_PPY just_RR had_VHN to_TO show_VVI how_RRQ the_AT nightmare_NN1 worked_VVD and_CC everyone_PN1 would_VM wake_VVI up_RP ._. 
Their_APPGE quest_NN1 was_VBDZ for_IF the_AT perfect_JJ formula_NN1 ._. 
'_GE The_AT history_NN1 of_IO the_AT SI_FW is_VBZ in_II some_DD ways_NN2 a_AT1 struggle_NN1 for_IF recognition_NN1 (_( despite_II Debord_NP1 's_GE evasions_NN2 )_) sustained_VVD by_II a_AT1 radically_RR negative_JJ critique_NN1 which_DDQ ultimately_RR failed_VVN to_TO find_VVI a_AT1 middle_JJ way_NN1 between_II Hegelian_JJ metaphysics_NN2 and_CC the_AT dynamics_NN of_IO political_JJ organisation_NN1 in_II the_AT pursuit_NN1 of_IO its_APPGE utopian_JJ objectives_NN2 ._. 
The_AT declamatory_JJ style_NN1 of_IO writing_NN1 (_( which_DDQ now_RT seems_VVZ dated_JJ )_) too_RG often_RR obscured_VVD the_AT probity_NN1 of_IO the_AT Situationist_NN1 's_GE critique_NN1 of_IO the_AT alienating_JJ and_CC manipulative_JJ effects_NN2 of_IO late_JJ capitalism_NN1 and_CC its_APPGE creation_NN1 of_IO pseudo-needs_NN2 ._. 
The_AT movement_NN1 's_GE critique_NN1 proclaimed_VVN a_AT1 uniqueness_NN1 and_CC originality_NN1 for_IF its_APPGE discoveries_NN2 to_II which_DDQ it_PPH1 was_VBDZ never_RR entitled_VVN and_CC which_DDQ served_VVD only_RR to_TO reinforce_VVI the_AT self-deluding_JJ image_NN1 of_IO its_APPGE own_DA power_NN1 and_CC influence_VV0 in_II the_AT world_NN1 ._. 
Anti-authoritarian_JJ leftism_NN1 and_CC the_AT critique_NN1 of_IO bureaucratic_JJ socialism_NN1 had_VHD of_RR21 course_RR22 been_VBN well_RR established_VVN before_II the_AT foundation_NN1 of_IO the_AT SI_FW in_II 1957_MC ._. 
The_AT rejection_NN1 of_IO trade_NN1 unionism_NN1 was_VBDZ a_AT1 common_JJ demand_NN1 amongst_II anarchists_NN2 and_CC libertarian_JJ socialists_NN2 ._. 
At_II the_AT end_NN1 of_IO her_APPGE life_NN1 Rosa_NP1 Luxembourg_NP1 called_VVD for_IF the_AT abolishment_NN1 of_IO trade_NN1 unions_NN2 and_CC promoted_VVD the_AT view_NN1 that_CST workers_NN2 '_GE councils_NN2 were_VBDR essential_JJ organisations_NN2 in_II the_AT establishment_NN1 of_IO socialism_NN1 ._. 
More_RGR generally_RR the_AT idea_NN1 of_IO the_AT inseparability_NN1 of_IO cultural_JJ and_CC political_JJ revolution_NN1 has_VHZ a_AT1 long_JJ history_NN1 within_II the_AT libertarian_JJ tradition_NN1 with_IW its_APPGE roots_NN2 in_II revolutionary_JJ Romanticism_NN1 ._. 
The_AT more_RGR direct_JJ inspiration_NN1 for_IF the_AT Situationists_NN2 was_VBDZ the_AT Dada-Lettrist_JJ connection_NN1 which_DDQ provided_VVD the_AT aesthetic_JJ and_CC political_JJ basis_NN1 for_IF their_APPGE adoption_NN1 of_IO non-cognitive_JJ methods_NN2 of_IO expression_NN1 (_( such_II21 as_II22 automatism_NN1 ,_, chance_NN1 and_CC other_JJ depersonalising_JJ techniques_NN2 of_IO production_NN1 )_) and_CC also_RR led_VVN to_II the_AT definition_NN1 of_IO some_DD key_JJ terms_NN2 in_II their_APPGE vocabulary_NN1 ._. 
The_AT critique_NN1 of_IO scientific_JJ socialism_NN1 and_CC economism_NN1 has_VHZ a_AT1 major_JJ place_NN1 in_II Marxist_JJ debate_NN1 in_II the_AT twentieth_MD century_NNT1 ._. 
The_AT Situationists_NN2 ,_, contribution_NN1 to_II this_DD1 was_VBDZ negligible_JJ ._. 
The_AT Frankfurt_NP1 School_NN1 's_GE Marxian_JJ approach_NN1 to_II cultural_JJ criticism_NN1 ,_, and_CC production_NN1 and_CC the_AT social_JJ effects_NN2 of_IO technology_NN1 and_CC the_AT culture_NN1 industries_NN2 pre-dates_VVZ the_AT writings_NN2 of_IO Debord_NP1 ,_, and_CC yet_RR ,_, despite_II its_APPGE relative_JJ lack_NN1 of_IO revolutionary_JJ fervour_NN1 remains_VVZ a_AT1 far_RG more_RGR wide-ranging_JJ and_CC thoroughgoing_JJ critique_NN1 of_IO the_AT field_NN1 ._. 
The_AT conjunction_NN1 of_IO passion_NN1 and_CC knowledge_NN1 ,_, of_IO libertarianism_NN1 and_CC planning_NN1 ,_, of_IO feeling_NN1 and_CC thought_NN1 are_VBR conventional_JJ oppositions_NN2 in_II post-Enlightenment_JJ thought_NN1 which_DDQ have_VH0 also_RR bedevilled_VVN Marxism_NN1 ._. 
The_AT more_RGR orthodox_JJ theorists_NN2 in_II this_DD1 tradition_NN1 have_VH0 preserved_VVN this_DD1 separation_NN1 along_II the_AT lines_NN2 of_IO a_AT1 Romanticist/Utilitarian_JJ split_NN1 ._. 
Others_NN2 have_VH0 sought_VVN a_AT1 reconciliation_NN1 of_IO the_AT positions_NN2 that_CST these_DD2 terms_NN2 represent_VV0 ,_, and_CC there_EX is_VBZ an_AT1 abundance_NN1 of_IO literature_NN1 which_DDQ examines_VVZ this_DD1 relationship_NN1 in_II advance_NN1 of_IO the_AT Situationists_NN2 ._. 
If_CS the_AT Situationist_JJ project_NN1 is_VBZ flawed_JJ ,_, as_CSA I_PPIS1 believe_VV0 it_PPH1 is_VBZ ,_, it_PPH1 is_VBZ not_XX because_CS antecedent_JJ theories_NN2 of_IO libertarians_NN2 ,_, Marxists_NN2 and_CC Council_NN1 Communists_NN2 are_VBR ignored_VVN by_II them_PPHO2 ,_, but_CCB rather_RR because_CS they_PPHS2 lacked_VVD the_AT will_NN1 to_TO build_VVI on_II this_DD1 tradition_NN1 a_AT1 systematic_JJ utopianism_NN1 consisting_VVG of_IO critique_NN1 and_CC plausible_JJ projections_NN2 into_II the_AT future_NN1 ._. 
Like_II the_AT Surrealists_NN2 before_II them_PPHO2 ,_, their_APPGE transcendence_NN1 of_IO alienation_NN1 remains_VVZ abstractly_RR utopian_JJ ._. 
Despite_II revolutionary_JJ zeal_NN1 ,_, or_CC perhaps_RR because_II21 of_II22 it_PPH1 ,_, they_PPHS2 sought_VVD immediate_JJ compensations_NN2 for_IF the_AT miseries_NN2 of_IO daily_JJ life_NN1 ,_, and_CC spontaneous_JJ methods_NN2 of_IO attack_NN1 which_DDQ they_PPHS2 mistook_VVD for_IF political_JJ strategy_NN1 ._. 
The_AT Situationists_NN2 '_GE strategy_NN1 consisted_VVN of_IO an_AT1 exploratory_JJ utopianism_NN1 a_AT1 kind_NN1 of_IO heuristic_JJ projection_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 future_JJ society_NN1 ._. 
Raymond_NP1 Williams_NP1 has_VHZ remarked_VVN that_CST the_AT danger_NN1 of_IO the_AT heuristic_JJ utopia_NN1 is_VBZ that_CST it_PPH1 '_" can_VM settle_VVI into_II isolated_JJ and_CC sentimental_JJ desire_NN1 ,_, a_AT1 means_NN of_IO living_VVG with_IW alienation_NN1 '_GE ._. 
Another_DD1 Surrealist_JJ inheritance_NN1 which_DDQ distances_NN2 Situationists_NN2 from_II the_AT more_RGR radical_JJ utopians_NN2 is_VBZ their_APPGE blanket_NN1 condemnation_NN1 of_IO work_NN1 ._. 
'_GE Never_RR work_VV0 !_! '_GE announced_VVD the_AT Surrealists_NN2 ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ an_AT1 amusing_JJ quip_NN1 (_( especially_RR for_IF those_DD2 with_IW private_JJ means_NN )_) and_CC makes_VVZ joyful_JJ and_CC nonsensical_JJ graffiti_NN ._. 
But_CCB what_DDQ does_VDZ it_PPH1 mean_VVI ?_? 
Obviously_RR it_PPH1 is_VBZ an_AT1 incitement_NN1 to_II refusal_NN1 ,_, and_CC an_AT1 indictment_NN1 of_IO alienated_JJ labour_NN1 ._. 
The_AT refusal_NN1 is_VBZ as_RG understandable_JJ as_CSA it_PPH1 is_VBZ naive_JJ ,_, but_CCB seems_VVZ to_TO constitute_VVI at_II the_AT same_DA time_NNT1 what_DDQ amounts_VVZ to_II an_AT1 abnegation_NN1 of_IO intellectual_JJ curiosity_NN1 about_II human_JJ needs_NN2 ._. 
Its_APPGE political_JJ inflexion_NN1 contests_VVZ the_AT middle-class_JJ work_NN1 ethic_NN1 which_DDQ is_VBZ the_AT main_JJ purpose_NN1 of_IO its_APPGE message_NN1 ._. 
The_AT aristocracy_NN1 ,_, for_IF its_APPGE part_NN1 ,_, has_VHZ never_RR needed_VVN to_TO be_VBI convinced_VVN of_IO the_AT importance_NN1 of_IO not_XX working_VVG ._. 
For_IF other_JJ theorists_NN2 such_II21 as_II22 William_NP1 Morris_NP1 ,_, the_AT concept_NN1 of_IO work_NN1 is_VBZ not_XX considered_VVN negatively_RR ._. 
Indeed_RR ;_; for_IF Morris_NP1 and_CC other_JJ Marxists_NN2 the_AT nature_NN1 of_IO work_NN1 necessarily_RR changes_VVZ in_II the_AT process_NN1 of_IO social_JJ transformation_NN1 ._. 
Marx_NP1 defined_VVD labour_NN1 as_58 '_GE human_JJ sensuous_JJ activity_NN1 '_GE ._. 
Lukcs_NN2 claimed_VVD that_DD1 labour_NN1 became_VVD the_AT model_NN1 for_IF any_DD social_JJ practice_NN1 ._. 
The_AT plea_NN1 for_IF an_AT1 understanding_NN1 of_IO '_GE totality_NN1 '_GE in_II Situationist_JJ writing_NN1 derives_VVZ from_II Lukcs_NP2 and_CC Marx_NP1 whose_DDQGE critique_NN1 of_IO '_GE separation_NN1 '_GE is_VBZ directed_VVN exactly_RR at_II the_AT work/leisure_NN1 distinction_NN1 ._. 
Asger_VV0 Jorn_NP1 's_GE interest_NN1 in_II folk_NN cultures_NN2 and_CC tribal_JJ societies_NN2 which_DDQ lacked_VVD a_AT1 notion_NN1 of_IO '_GE art_NN1 '_GE as_II a_AT1 distinct_JJ intellectual_JJ practice_NN1 separated_VVN from_II the_AT common_JJ culture_NN1 ,_, was_VBDZ based_VVN on_II an_AT1 understanding_NN1 of_IO the_AT extent_NN1 to_II which_DDQ the_AT spheres_NN2 of_IO art_NN1 and_CC work_NN1 have_VH0 become_VVN conflicting_JJ practices_NN2 within_II bourgeois_JJ relations_NN2 of_IO production_NN1 ._. 
Despite_II this_DD1 the_AT common_JJ tendency_NN1 in_II SI_FW writing_VVG on_II most_DAT forms_NN2 of_IO directed_JJ or_CC purposeful_JJ activity_NN1 (_( other_II21 than_II22 agitation_NN1 or_CC '_GE destructive_JJ creativity'_NN1 )_) is_VBZ negative_JJ ._. 
The_AT aristocratic_JJ disdain_NN1 for_IF manual_JJ labour_NN1 has_VHZ its_APPGE counterpart_NN1 in_II the_AT Situationist_NN1 '_GE attitude_NN1 to_II the_AT working_JJ class_NN1 considered_VVN as_II the_AT moronised_JJ victims_NN2 of_IO the_AT spectacle_NN1 ._. 
In_II contrast_NN1 the_AT Situationists_NN2 '_GE notion_NN1 of_IO pleasure_NN1 is_VBZ a_AT1 negation_NN1 of_IO work_NN1 in_II almost_RR every_AT1 sense_NN1 of_IO the_AT word_NN1 a_AT1 kind_NN1 of_IO involuntary_JJ idleness_NN1 in_II the_AT land_NN1 of_IO Cockaigne_NP1 ._. 
Their_APPGE notion_NN1 of_IO pleasure_NN1 is_VBZ indistinguishable_JJ from_II a_AT1 sixties_MC2 Zeitgeist_NN1 ._. 
Its_APPGE meaning_NN1 is_VBZ inadequately_RR theorised_VVN and_CC remains_VVZ largely_RR at_II the_AT level_NN1 of_IO common_JJ sense_NN1 ,_, a_AT1 crude_JJ alternative_NN1 to_II the_AT repressive_JJ order_NN1 of_IO work_NN1 ._. 
Now_CS21 that_CS22 Situationist_JJ texts_NN2 are_VBR widely_RR available_JJ (_( and_CC with_IW these_DD2 publications_NN2 adding_VVG to_II the_AT list_NN1 )_) it_PPH1 is_VBZ ironic_JJ that_CST they_PPHS2 seem_VV0 less_RGR crucial_JJ than_CSN they_PPHS2 once_RR did_VDD ._. 
Their_APPGE appeal_NN1 in_II the_AT past_NN1 was_VBDZ partly_RR attributable_JJ to_II the_AT popular_JJ texture_NN1 of_IO some_DD aspects_NN2 of_IO the_AT writing_NN1 ,_, its_APPGE accessibility_NN1 and_CC its_APPGE festive_JJ and_CC irreverent_JJ politics_NN1 ._. 
These_DD2 writings_NN2 appealed_VVD essentially_RR to_II a_AT1 generation_NN1 of_IO students_NN2 bored_JJ with_IW academic_JJ life_NN1 and_CC attracted_VVN by_II the_AT street_NN1 credibility_NN1 of_IO the_AT Situationists_NN2 ,_, and_CC often_RR provided_VVN students_NN2 with_IW the_AT dubious_JJ pleasure_NN1 of_IO being_VBG flattered_VVN and_CC insulted_VVN at_II the_AT same_DA time_NNT1 ._. 
The_AT Situationist_JJ lifestyle_NN1 (_( in_CS41 so_CS42 far_CS43 as_CS44 it_PPH1 could_VM be_VBI imagined_VVN )_) had_VHD some_DD influence_NN1 on_II the_AT hippy_NN1 sub-culture_NN1 in_II the_AT late_JJ sixties_MC2 and_CC punk_NN1 ideology_NN1 in_II the_AT seventies_MC2 in_II Britain_NP1 ._. 
Situationist_NN1 influence_NN1 was_VBDZ more_RGR menacingly_RR felt_VVN in_II France_NP1 especially_RR in_II the_AT universities_NN2 ,_, although_CS it_PPH1 has_VHZ to_TO be_VBI said_VVN that_CST their_APPGE influence_NN1 upon_II the_AT events_NN2 of_IO May_NPM1 1968_MC has_VHZ been_VBN exaggerated_VVN ._. 
For_RR41 the_RR42 most_RR43 part_RR44 ,_, however_RR ,_, the_AT legacy_NN1 of_IO the_AT movement_NN1 remained_VVD less_RGR obviously_RR political_JJ ,_, and_CC restricted_VVN in_II its_APPGE appeal_NN1 to_II fairly_RR specific_JJ audiences_NN2 in_II the_AT cultural_JJ milieu_NN1 and_CC especially_RR the_AT visual_JJ arts_NN2 ._. 
Indeed_RR ,_, the_AT extent_NN1 to_II which_DDQ the_AT Situationist_JJ influence_NN1 has_VHZ flourished_VVN in_II the_AT spheres_NN2 of_IO art_NN1 and_CC popular_JJ culture_NN1 is_VBZ noteworthy_JJ and_CC contrasts_VVZ with_IW the_AT absence_NN1 of_IO the_AT movement_NN1 's_GE influence_NN1 in_II other_JJ domains_NN2 ._. 
The_AT uneven_JJ profile_NN1 of_IO the_AT Situationist_JJ group_NN1 and_CC its_APPGE existential_JJ fragmentation_NN1 together_RL with_IW the_AT eclectic_JJ and_CC impromptu_JJ formal_JJ character_NN1 of_IO the_AT artefacts_NN2 they_PPHS2 produced_VVD ,_, as_CSA I_PPIS1 have_VH0 suggested_VVN above_RL ,_, make_VV0 it_PPH1 an_AT1 ideal_JJ type_NN1 for_IF the_AT postmodernist_JJ critic_NN1 ._. 
The_AT Situationists_NN2 '_GE rejection_NN1 of_IO the_AT classical_JJ model_NN1 of_IO left-wing_JJ monumentalism_NN1 ,_, and_CC their_APPGE apparent_JJ lack_NN1 of_IO commitment_NN1 to_II the_AT historical_JJ overview_NN1 or_CC the_AT grand_JJ narrative_NN1 is_VBZ consistent_JJ with_IW postmodernism_NN1 ._. 
Moreover_RR ,_, the_AT freedom_NN1 with_IW which_DDQ they_PPHS2 juxtapose_VV0 theory_NN1 and_CC humour_NN1 ,_, and_CC plagiarise_VV0 for_IF artistic_JJ effect_NN1 suggests_VVZ strong_JJ affinity_NN1 with_IW the_AT postmodern_JJ ._. 
The_AT decline_NN1 of_IO the_AT meta-narrative_NN1 in_II31 favour_II32 of_II33 aphoristic_JJ models_NN2 of_IO philosophical_JJ expression_NN1 (_( following_VVG Feuerbach_NP1 and_CC Nietzche_NP1 )_) has_VHZ been_VBN the_AT favoured_JJ form_NN1 of_IO the_AT Situationists_NN2 ._. 
The_AT fact_NN1 that_CST Baudrillard_NP1 's_GE name_NN1 has_VHZ been_VBN linked_VVN with_IW the_AT Situationists_NN2 should_VM not_XX be_VBI held_VVN against_II them_PPHO2 ._. 
Nevertheless_RR ,_, the_AT de-Marxisation_NN1 of_IO their_APPGE project_NN1 by_II him_PPHO1 and_CC the_AT '_GE death_NN1 of_IO the_AT social_JJ '_GE which_DDQ he_PPHS1 has_VHZ announced_VVN should_VM alert_VVI us_PPIO2 to_II the_AT doubts_NN2 raised_VVN by_II Raymond_NP1 Williams_NP1 on_II the_AT issue_NN1 of_IO certain_JJ types_NN2 of_IO Utopianism_NN1 ._. 
The_AT concept_NN1 of_IO the_AT spectacle_NN1 is_VBZ an_AT1 effective_JJ term_NN1 which_DDQ now_RT has_VHZ a_AT1 wide_JJ currency_NN1 ,_, but_CCB perhaps_RR only_RR in_II a_AT1 sense_NN1 which_DDQ approximates_VVZ its_APPGE use_NN1 by_II the_AT Situationists_NN2 ._. 
The_AT historical_JJ period_NN1 which_DDQ has_VHZ seen_VVN its_APPGE political_JJ devaluation_NN1 is_VBZ one_PN1 in_II which_DDQ political_JJ optimism_NN1 has_VHZ become_VVN unfashionable_JJ ,_, which_DDQ perhaps_RR is_VBZ one_MC1 way_NN1 of_IO explaining_VVG the_AT retrospective_JJ or_CC merely_RR historicist_NN1 character_NN1 of_IO the_AT Situationist_JJ exhibition_NN1 ,_, and_CC the_AT books_NN2 I_PPIS1 have_VH0 reviewed_VVN ._. 
We_PPIS2 have_VH0 seen_VVN a_AT1 shift_NN1 from_II the_AT utopianism_NN1 of_IO the_AT 1960s_MC2 to_II a_AT1 culture_NN1 of_IO nostalgia_NN1 and_CC ,_, as_CSA with_IW the_AT more_RGR dystopian_JJ elements_NN2 in_II postmodernism_NN1 ,_, the_AT exhibition_NN1 and_CC the_AT books_NN2 which_DDQ accompany_VV0 it_PPH1 look_VV0 backward_RL in_II a_AT1 search_NN1 for_IF appearances_NN2 as_CS21 if_CS22 they_PPHS2 were_VBDR compensatory_JJ fantasies_NN2 substituting_VVG for_IF a_AT1 forgotten_JJ dream_NN1 ._. 
